SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
THEME: AGRICULTURAL ECOLOGY
1. Revision of first term’s work.
2. Factors affecting land availability for Agricultural purposes:(a) Factors affecting land availability for agricultural purposes (i)Land tenure system (ii)Population pressure(iii)Soil type and topography etc.
3. Agro-Allied industries and Relationship between Agriculture and Industry: (a)Agro –based Industries and raw materials(i)Paper industry-pulpwood (ii)Beverage industry-cocoa, tea, etc. (iii)Soap industry-oil seeds, etc. (b)Relationship between agriculture and industries: agriculture provides market for industrial products e.g. farm machinery, chemicals.
4. Environmental factors affecting Agricultural production: Environmental factors affecting crops and production (a)Climatic factors e.g. rainfall, temperature, light, wind etc. (b) Biotic factors e. g predators, parasites, soil micro-organisms, etc. Inter relationship such as competition, parasitism, mutualism (symbiosis)etc. (c) Edaphic factors: soil pH,s oil texture, soil structure, soil type etc.
5. Rock formation: (a) Process of Rock formation (b)Types of Rock (i)Igneous (ii)Sedimentary (iii)metamorphic.
6. Soil formation and profile development (a)Factors of soil formation (the parent rock, organisms, climate topography and time) (b)Outline of soil formation process e.g. weathering process;(c)Soil profile development.
7. Types, composition and properties of soil:(a)Types of soil (b)Chemical and biological composition of soil (i)soil macro and micro nutrients (ii)soil water (iii)macro- organisms (iv)soil microbes (v)soil air (c) Soil Ph (d)Physical properties of soil (i)soil texture (ii)soil structure (e)Soil classification systems.
THEME: AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND MECHANIZATION.
8. Simple farm tools Uses and Maintenance: (a)Meaning of simple farm tools (b)Types of simple farm tools-cutlass, hoe, spade, shovel etc. (c)Identification and description of each of the tools (d)Identification of various accessory tools and their uses (e)General maintenance of simple farm tools
9. Farm Machinery and Implements: (a)Farm machinery (i)Tractor (ii)Bull dozer (iii)Shellers (iv)Dryers (v)Incubators (vi)Milking machines etc. (b)Tractor-coupled implements : ploughs, harrows, ridgers, planters ,harvesters, sprayers etc.
10. Maintenance Practices and Precautionary Measures: (a)Reasons for maintaining farm machines.(b)Maintenance of farm machinery (i)check water and oil levels regularly (ii)carry out routine service (iii)keep the machines clean etc.
12. Revision.
13. Examination.
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School by O.A Iwena Tonad Publishers Ltd
4. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.
2ND TERM
WEEK 1
TOPIC: factors affecting land availability for agricultural purposes
CONTENT: factors affecting land availability
Land availability is affected by so many factors,which include:
1.Land tenure system: land tenure is the system of land ownership including the rights and obligations governing its acquisition and disposal. The prevailing system of land ownership in Nigeria does not encourage prospective farmers to acquire large hectares of land because
the actual owners feel that their young ones are being robbed o f their inheritance.In Nigeria, land is mostly acquired through inheritance and shared among the beneficiaries ,due to fragmentation of land it becomes difficult to carryout large scale farming.
Similarly communal land tenure does not make land available for agriculture too. Land is jointly owned by community. At times, government holds such land in trust for the community and later releases such land for building industrial layout ,thus making lands unavailable for agricultural activities.
2.POPULATION PRESSURE:In a countrywhere the population is sparse, land availability to the farmers will be enough, but the reverse is the case where land the population is high.
3.THE SIZE OF USEFUL LAND IN A COUNTRY:The size of land ideal for agriculture will also affect its usage .In deserts ,mountainous areas and savannahs, the size of land for agriculture will be small.
4.CLIMATIC FACTORS: The prevailing climatic factors like rainfall,and sunlight affect land availability. Climate rendersthe desert polar regions unsuitable for agriculture.
5.SOIL FACTORS:This refers to the type of soil particles available in a place .A soil with equal proportion of sand ,silt ,clay (i. e ,loamy soil) will be best for agriculture, but sandy soil alone will not be ideal for agriculture.
6.Cultivation practices: The type of cultivation methods practised in a place will affect land availability .Cultural methods like bush fallowing, shifting cultivation and deforestation are not good .7.CULTURAL PRACTICES: These include bush burning ,shifting cultivation ,bush fallowing, deforestation etc, do not make land available for agriculture-they rather waste land.
8.TOPOGRAPHY: This simply refers to the shape of the land. The best land is a plain or flat land because it exposes all portions of the land to rain and sunlight at equal proportion.
Valleys and hills encourage erosion ,which is not good for agriculture unless terraces are constructed on them.
9.INFRASTRUCTURAL DEMANDS ON LAND: Where land is also being demanded for other factors like road construction ,buildings, recreational centres, etc reduces land availability for agriculture.
10.GOVERNMENT POLICY: The land use decree of 1978 prevents individuals from owning land. The law makes it mandatory that government owns the land. People wishing to obtain land must apply for it. In most cases land is granted for housing and industrial purposes .instead of agricultural purposes.
11.RELIGIOUS BELIEFS: The type of religious beliefs practised in a country will affect land usage. There is resistance in some parts against growing grains for brewing industries.
General evaluation:
Essay questions:
1. List ten factors that influence the availability of land for agricultural purposes in your country?
2 . Explain how the following factors affect land availability for agriculture in your locality:(i) land tenure systems (ii)topography (iii)government policy (iv)climatic factors.
Objectives;
1.Agro-based industries are those that A. Use agricultural raw materials B. produce agricultural chemicals. employ the children of farmers. D. produces agricultural exports. E. produces agricultural equipment.
2.Which of the following industries does not use agricultural raw material for its production? A. cement factory B. textile mills C. plywood factory D. soap factory E. canning industries.
3.Which of the following uses to which land is put can be classified as spiritual? A. for food and cash crops B. for raising livestock C. for forest reserves D. for recreation. E. for fish ponds.
4.Which of the following crops produces latex in West Africa? A. Kola B. oil-palm C. rubber.D. coconut E. coffee.
5.West Africa leads other parts of the world in the production of A. cultivated fruits B. Rubber C. Coconut D cocoa E. coffee.
Week end assignment: Read from pages 48-50 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by M.O.Adeniji. and attempt all the revision questions .
Pre-reading assignment: Read on Agro-based industries and relationship between agriculture industry. Pages 50-53 of Evans Agric Sc. B.k 1.
Week end activity: Find out other factors that affect land availability for agriculture
apart from the ones mentioned in the E-learning notes and write down five (5) of them
REFERENCE TEXTS: 1. Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1by M.O.Adeniji.
2 . Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor .
CONTENT: factors affecting land availability
Land availability is affected by so many factors,which include:
1.Land tenure system: land tenure is the system of land ownership including the rights and obligations governing its acquisition and disposal. The prevailing system of land ownership in Nigeria does not encourage prospective farmers to acquire large hectares of land because
the actual owners feel that their young ones are being robbed o f their inheritance.In Nigeria, land is mostly acquired through inheritance and shared among the beneficiaries ,due to fragmentation of land it becomes difficult to carryout large scale farming.
Similarly communal land tenure does not make land available for agriculture too. Land is jointly owned by community. At times, government holds such land in trust for the community and later releases such land for building industrial layout ,thus making lands unavailable for agricultural activities.
2.POPULATION PRESSURE:In a countrywhere the population is sparse, land availability to the farmers will be enough, but the reverse is the case where land the population is high.
3.THE SIZE OF USEFUL LAND IN A COUNTRY:The size of land ideal for agriculture will also affect its usage .In deserts ,mountainous areas and savannahs, the size of land for agriculture will be small.
4.CLIMATIC FACTORS: The prevailing climatic factors like rainfall,and sunlight affect land availability. Climate rendersthe desert polar regions unsuitable for agriculture.
5.SOIL FACTORS:This refers to the type of soil particles available in a place .A soil with equal proportion of sand ,silt ,clay (i. e ,loamy soil) will be best for agriculture, but sandy soil alone will not be ideal for agriculture.
6.Cultivation practices: The type of cultivation methods practised in a place will affect land availability .Cultural methods like bush fallowing, shifting cultivation and deforestation are not good .7.CULTURAL PRACTICES: These include bush burning ,shifting cultivation ,bush fallowing, deforestation etc, do not make land available for agriculture-they rather waste land.
8.TOPOGRAPHY: This simply refers to the shape of the land. The best land is a plain or flat land because it exposes all portions of the land to rain and sunlight at equal proportion.
Valleys and hills encourage erosion ,which is not good for agriculture unless terraces are constructed on them.
9.INFRASTRUCTURAL DEMANDS ON LAND: Where land is also being demanded for other factors like road construction ,buildings, recreational centres, etc reduces land availability for agriculture.
10.GOVERNMENT POLICY: The land use decree of 1978 prevents individuals from owning land. The law makes it mandatory that government owns the land. People wishing to obtain land must apply for it. In most cases land is granted for housing and industrial purposes .instead of agricultural purposes.
11.RELIGIOUS BELIEFS: The type of religious beliefs practised in a country will affect land usage. There is resistance in some parts against growing grains for brewing industries.
General evaluation:
Essay questions:
1. List ten factors that influence the availability of land for agricultural purposes in your country?
2 . Explain how the following factors affect land availability for agriculture in your locality:(i) land tenure systems (ii)topography (iii)government policy (iv)climatic factors.
Objectives;
1.Agro-based industries are those that A. Use agricultural raw materials B. produce agricultural chemicals. employ the children of farmers. D. produces agricultural exports. E. produces agricultural equipment.
2.Which of the following industries does not use agricultural raw material for its production? A. cement factory B. textile mills C. plywood factory D. soap factory E. canning industries.
3.Which of the following uses to which land is put can be classified as spiritual? A. for food and cash crops B. for raising livestock C. for forest reserves D. for recreation. E. for fish ponds.
4.Which of the following crops produces latex in West Africa? A. Kola B. oil-palm C. rubber.D. coconut E. coffee.
5.West Africa leads other parts of the world in the production of A. cultivated fruits B. Rubber C. Coconut D cocoa E. coffee.
Week end assignment: Read from pages 48-50 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by M.O.Adeniji. and attempt all the revision questions .
Pre-reading assignment: Read on Agro-based industries and relationship between agriculture industry. Pages 50-53 of Evans Agric Sc. B.k 1.
Week end activity: Find out other factors that affect land availability for agriculture
apart from the ones mentioned in the E-learning notes and write down five (5) of them
REFERENCE TEXTS: 1. Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1by M.O.Adeniji.
2 . Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor .
WEEK 2
TOPIC: AGRO-ALLIED INDUSTRIES AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY
CONTENT: i. Meaning of Agro-based industry.
ii. Agro-based industries and their raw materials.
Iii .Relationship between Agriculture and industry
Sub topic 1: Meaning of agro-allied industry
Agro-allied industries are industries that make use of agricultural produce or products as raw material to produce other finished products. Tt also refers to the produce that the farmers use as an inputs in the farm. These industries help to provide market for agricultural
products ,provide employment opportunities ,generate income for the government and influence or enhance development of rural areas.
Sub topic 2: Agro allied industries and their raw materials:
The following industries make use of agricultural produce or products as raw materials:
Agro-based industries and their raw materials
Agro-based industries Raw materials used
Textile/Ginnery Cotton,wool,fur
Oil Mill Oil( from oil seeds)
Beverage industry Cocoa ,coffee ,tea
Paper mill/industry Pulp wood
Cigarette/tobacco industry Tobacco leaves
Soap industry Oil (from oil seeds)
Fruit canning industry (Orange,apple,pineapple,strawberry)
Tyre and tube industry Latex(from rubber tree)
Sugar industry Sugarcane
Livestock feed mill Grains (maize,groundnut,soyabeans,etc)
Plastic industries Latex (fromrubbertree)
Confectioneries Cocoa,butter etc.
Flourmills Maize,wheat etc.
Pharmaceutical industries Neem,Eucalyptus,cotton,,insulin from pigs
Foam industry Latex (from rubber tree)
Breweries Maize,wheat,rice,millet,guinea-corn
Leather industry or tannery Hide and skin
Plywood industry Timber wood
Meat/Fish canning industry Meat and fish
Perfume industry Oil (from oil seeds)
Sack,Rope,Mat,and Bag industries Jute,sisal,kenaf,kapok
Milk industry Raw milk from cattle
Sawmill Timber(logs)
EVALUATION: I. list ten (10) agricultural produce used as raw materials by agro-based industries.
ii. Mention ten (10) agro-allied industries in Nigeria.
Some of the industries that produce farm inputs are:
1. Fertilizer industry,e.g,NAFCON
2. Agro-chemical industries
3. Machine/tools industries
4. Vaccine industries
5. Drug making (pharmaceutical industries)
6. Fabrication workshops
Sub topic 3: Relationship Between Agriculture and Industries
Agriculture and industry have a strong relationship and these include the following:
1.Agr
iculture is the major source of raw materials for agro-based industries,while agro-based industries provide ready market for agricultural products such as cocoa,cotton,latex,hides and skin,palm produce etc.
2 . Agriculture provides market for industries such as agro-chemicaals,vaccines,drugs,fertilizers and farm machinery ,industries on the other hand, supply agriculture inputs.
3. Through agricultural development we can be able to shift from factors of productionsuch as land,capital, and labour to labourindusrties.
4 . Industries create employment opportunities for the farmer’s children’while the farming community also supplies labour to the industries.
5. Agro-based industries help to provide processing/storage facilities for agricultural sector to prevent wastage such as silos,grinders,andshellers.
6. agriculture provides food food for industrial workers while industries provide agro-chemicals such pesticides,vaccines,herbicides,fertilizers for agricultural use.
7. Development of agriculture is facilitated by the presence of raw materials in an area .this transforms rural communities in terms of social amenities.
8. Due to industrial development agriculture is now made easy through fabrication of energy-saving tools and machinery providedby industries.such tools and machinery include cutlasses,hoes,ploughs,tractors etc.
9. Labour is competed for both agriculture and industries.
10. Indusrial development leads to rural development and enhances agricultural development.
Evaluation: I.List 10 agro-allied industries and their raw materials.
2. Mention 10 industries that make use of agricultural produce as their raw materials.
Week end assignment: Read pages 51-53 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 by M. O. A deniji e tal.and answer all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production.
Week end Activity. Visit tuck-shops in your school and identify the defferent agricultural produce used in making the finished products fou
nd in the shops.List ( 15) of them.
Weekend Test:
Essay Questions: 1. List 10 agro-based industries and their raw materials.
2.Define agro-based industry.
3.List ten industries that use agricultural produce as their raw materials to produce finished products.
4.State 5 relationships between agriculture and industries in terms of agricultural raw materials.
Objectives test:
1. All the following make use of maize as raw material in their industries except (a)flour mills (b)ginnery. (c) feed mills. (d)breweries.
2. Which of the following agro-allied industries supply inputs to agriculture?(a)sugar industry (b)fertilizer industry. (c) beverage industry (d) confectioneries.
3. Jute,Sisal,KenafandKapok are used for making (a) soap. (b)sack. (c) paper .(d) foam.
4. Agricultural material used in a tannery is (a)cocoa beans. (b)hides and skins (c) tobacco leaves (d)timber wood.
5. Which of the following is not an agro-based industry? (a)mining industry. (b) ginnery (c) feed mill (d)perfume industry.
References: Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 byM.O.Adeniji Eta l.
2. Comprehensive Agricultural Science For S ENIOR Secondary Schools by Ogieva E rebor.
3. C omprehensive Certificate Agricltural S cience For Senior S econdary Schools by La Are
et tal.
CONTENT: i. Meaning of Agro-based industry.
ii. Agro-based industries and their raw materials.
Iii .Relationship between Agriculture and industry
Sub topic 1: Meaning of agro-allied industry
Agro-allied industries are industries that make use of agricultural produce or products as raw material to produce other finished products. Tt also refers to the produce that the farmers use as an inputs in the farm. These industries help to provide market for agricultural
products ,provide employment opportunities ,generate income for the government and influence or enhance development of rural areas.
Sub topic 2: Agro allied industries and their raw materials:
The following industries make use of agricultural produce or products as raw materials:
Agro-based industries and their raw materials
Agro-based industries Raw materials used
Textile/Ginnery Cotton,wool,fur
Oil Mill Oil( from oil seeds)
Beverage industry Cocoa ,coffee ,tea
Paper mill/industry Pulp wood
Cigarette/tobacco industry Tobacco leaves
Soap industry Oil (from oil seeds)
Fruit canning industry (Orange,apple,pineapple,strawberry)
Tyre and tube industry Latex(from rubber tree)
Sugar industry Sugarcane
Livestock feed mill Grains (maize,groundnut,soyabeans,etc)
Plastic industries Latex (fromrubbertree)
Confectioneries Cocoa,butter etc.
Flourmills Maize,wheat etc.
Pharmaceutical industries Neem,Eucalyptus,cotton,,insulin from pigs
Foam industry Latex (from rubber tree)
Breweries Maize,wheat,rice,millet,guinea-corn
Leather industry or tannery Hide and skin
Plywood industry Timber wood
Meat/Fish canning industry Meat and fish
Perfume industry Oil (from oil seeds)
Sack,Rope,Mat,and Bag industries Jute,sisal,kenaf,kapok
Milk industry Raw milk from cattle
Sawmill Timber(logs)
EVALUATION: I. list ten (10) agricultural produce used as raw materials by agro-based industries.
ii. Mention ten (10) agro-allied industries in Nigeria.
Some of the industries that produce farm inputs are:
1. Fertilizer industry,e.g,NAFCON
2. Agro-chemical industries
3. Machine/tools industries
4. Vaccine industries
5. Drug making (pharmaceutical industries)
6. Fabrication workshops
Sub topic 3: Relationship Between Agriculture and Industries
Agriculture and industry have a strong relationship and these include the following:
1.Agr
iculture is the major source of raw materials for agro-based industries,while agro-based industries provide ready market for agricultural products such as cocoa,cotton,latex,hides and skin,palm produce etc.
2 . Agriculture provides market for industries such as agro-chemicaals,vaccines,drugs,fertilizers and farm machinery ,industries on the other hand, supply agriculture inputs.
3. Through agricultural development we can be able to shift from factors of productionsuch as land,capital, and labour to labourindusrties.
4 . Industries create employment opportunities for the farmer’s children’while the farming community also supplies labour to the industries.
5. Agro-based industries help to provide processing/storage facilities for agricultural sector to prevent wastage such as silos,grinders,andshellers.
6. agriculture provides food food for industrial workers while industries provide agro-chemicals such pesticides,vaccines,herbicides,fertilizers for agricultural use.
7. Development of agriculture is facilitated by the presence of raw materials in an area .this transforms rural communities in terms of social amenities.
8. Due to industrial development agriculture is now made easy through fabrication of energy-saving tools and machinery providedby industries.such tools and machinery include cutlasses,hoes,ploughs,tractors etc.
9. Labour is competed for both agriculture and industries.
10. Indusrial development leads to rural development and enhances agricultural development.
Evaluation: I.List 10 agro-allied industries and their raw materials.
2. Mention 10 industries that make use of agricultural produce as their raw materials.
Week end assignment: Read pages 51-53 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 by M. O. A deniji e tal.and answer all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production.
Week end Activity. Visit tuck-shops in your school and identify the defferent agricultural produce used in making the finished products fou
nd in the shops.List ( 15) of them.
Weekend Test:
Essay Questions: 1. List 10 agro-based industries and their raw materials.
2.Define agro-based industry.
3.List ten industries that use agricultural produce as their raw materials to produce finished products.
4.State 5 relationships between agriculture and industries in terms of agricultural raw materials.
Objectives test:
1. All the following make use of maize as raw material in their industries except (a)flour mills (b)ginnery. (c) feed mills. (d)breweries.
2. Which of the following agro-allied industries supply inputs to agriculture?(a)sugar industry (b)fertilizer industry. (c) beverage industry (d) confectioneries.
3. Jute,Sisal,KenafandKapok are used for making (a) soap. (b)sack. (c) paper .(d) foam.
4. Agricultural material used in a tannery is (a)cocoa beans. (b)hides and skins (c) tobacco leaves (d)timber wood.
5. Which of the following is not an agro-based industry? (a)mining industry. (b) ginnery (c) feed mill (d)perfume industry.
References: Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 byM.O.Adeniji Eta l.
2. Comprehensive Agricultural Science For S ENIOR Secondary Schools by Ogieva E rebor.
3. C omprehensive Certificate Agricltural S cience For Senior S econdary Schools by La Are
et tal.
WEEK 3
TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
SUB TOPIC:
(i) Climate factors
(ii) Biotic factors
(iii) Edaphic factors
Agricultural activities such as crop and livestock production are affected by several environment factors.
These environment factors determine and influence the distribution of crops and livestock as well as the performance and productivity of crops and livestock.
SUBTOPIC: CLIMATIC FACTORS
Climate can be defines as the average weather condition of a place measured over a long period of time. Elements of climate include temperature, sunlight, wind rainfall, relative humidity and cloud cover.
(a) Temperature: is essential for germination and growth of plants. It is necessary for photosynthesis and affects distribution of crops and animals. It affects maturity of crops that is, ripening of fruits. It also determines the rate of evapo-transpiration.
(b) Sunlight: sunlight is necessary for germination and maturity of seeds. It is the major ingredients for photosynthesis. Sunlight account for the opening and closing of the petals of certain flowers e.g sunflower.
Sunlight divides plants into three photo periods:
(i) Long-day plants which require longer day light. For example millet and sorghum.
(ii) Short-day plants which require shorter day light. For example cocoa, kola and oil palm.
(iii) Day-neutral plants which require equal period of day and night, that is about 12 hours of sunlight and darkness respectively for example tomato.
Sunlight is equally essential for the performance and production of poultry. It affects evapo-transpiration. Absence of light lead to etiolation in which the plants leaves becomes pale and the stem elongated.
(c) Wind: Wind refers to air in motion and account for the different seasons in the tropic. for example moisture-laden south west trade wind from the Atlantic Ocean brings raining season while north east trade wind leads to harmattan which helps in the ripening of some fruits like cotton. Wind affects the level of rainfall. It can either increase or deduce evap-transpiration.
Wind is essential for the dispersal of fruits and seeds. It is one of the agents of pollution. It can cause erosion and also causes serious damages to our crops in form of lodging. Wind can spread diseases by camping air borne spores and other pathogens.
(d) Rainfall: rainfall supplies drinking water for animals especially in the desert areas. It determines the distribution and types of crops and animals that can be found in an area. Rainfall also determines the different types of vegetation. For example forest and savannah regions. Rainfall is essential for seed germination and helps to dissolve soil nutrients.
Excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion and leaching.
(e) Relative Humidity: This refers to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere relative humidity results in the formation of rain. High relative humidity can reduce temperature leading to coldness, and reduces evapo-transpiration. High relative humidity leads to mouldiness of feeds in the poultry house. High relative humidity affects food intake and production of farm animals. High relative humidity also aids the growth of disease pathogens.
Relative humidity determines the type of crops growing in an area. For example cocoa will not grow well under low relative humidity while low humidity encourage the growth of grains and grasses.
(f) Cloud Cover: This influences temperature and also affects sunlight. It can determine rainfall of a place. It reduces evapo-transpiration.
EVALUATION: (i) Make a list of climatic factors that affect agricultural production. (ii) Explain briefly how sunlight affects classification of crop plants. (iii) Describe four effects each of: (a) Wind (b) Rainfall (c) Temperature on agricultural production.
SUB TOPIC 2: BIOTIC FACTORS
These are living organism inhabiting the soil. They include predators, parasite, soil micro organisms, pest and disease pathogens and weeds.
(i) Predators: These are organisms that feed on other organism. Products may include lizard, toad, hawk, tiger and lion while prey includes goat, chicks, and insects. Some of them cause a great loss in livestock industry. Some predators are used to control some pests of crops and animals.
(ii) Parasites: A parasite is an organism that line in or on other organism called host. It derives nourishment from the host while the host is injured during the association. It transmits certain diseases to the host. Parasites can live inside the host as endo-parasites such as tapeworm, roundworm and liverfluke. They may also live outside the host as ectoparasites such as ticks, lice and mite. Parasites can also be plants such as parasite weeds like dodder and mistotle. They reduce the quantity and quantity of agricultural products. They may eventually lead to the death of plants and animals if not controlled on time.
(iii) Soil Organisms: these are living organism inhabiting the soil. They include micro organisms like bacteria, fungi and viruses and macro organisms such as earth worms, rodents, millipedes, termites and snails.
Some of them cause diseases in farm animals and crop plant. For example bacteria and fungi cause diseases. Their activities can reduce the quality and quantity of agricultural yields.
Some of the them are also beneficial in agricultural production. For example nitrogen fixing bacteria into the soil. Fingi can help in humus formation and the decomposition of plant materials. Some soil organisms also aid soil aeration, water percolation and fertility of the soil. They help to breakdown organic matter in the soil and help in microbial digestion.
(iv) Pests and disease Pathogen: Pests are those organisms that cause physical damages to crop plants. They include birds, rodents while disease pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, nematodes. They can attack crops while still growing on the field or during storage. They can reduce yields of crops and animals. They may increase cost of production and reduce farmer’s income due to their effects on animals and crop yield. Some pests are vectors of diseases.
(v) Weeds: weeds are plants growing where they are not desired. They complete with crops for water, space, light and food nutrients. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock. They increase cost of production and can act as hosts for certain crop pests.
EVALUATION
1. Enumerate the biotic factors that affect agricultural production.
2. Differentiate with 2 examples each between ectoparasites and endoparasites.
3. State three effects of weeds on agricultural production.
4. Mention four beneficial effects of soil living organisms in agricultural production.
SUB TOPIC 3: EDAPHIC FACTORS
These are soil related factors that affect agricultural production. The major soil factors include soil types, soil texture, soil structure, soil PH, and topography.
(i) Soil types: this is a serious factor in crop production. It determine the kind of crop to be grown and irrigation type to be employed where needs be. It affect the performance of the crops. Soil types include sandy, loamy and clay soil.
(ii) Soil Texture: This refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample. It determines the type of soil in an area. Nutrient availability is also determined by soil texture. It affects water in filtration and retention of the soil. Erosion and leaching can either increase or decrease based on types of crops to be cultivated.
(iii) Soil structure: This refers to the arrangement size and stability of soil aggregate or group. Good soil structure aids the survival of soil organism which in turn aid soil fertility.
Good structure soil reduces soil erosion and flooding thereby helps soil conservation. It also determines percolation rate and water retention capacity of the soil. It determines the ease with which roots penetrate their soil and their ability to thrives well.
(iv) Soil pH: This refers to hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the soil. It is used to determine whether the soil is acidic, basic or neutral. Soil pH determines the crop species that can grow in a habitat. For example tea grows well in acidic soil while maize grows in slightly acidic soil.
Soil pH determines availability of soil organisms. The quantity of soil nutrients varies with the soil pH. Aluminium, iron and manganese dissolve in acid soils, than making them toxic to crop plants. Most tropical crops thrives well in a soil pH of between 5.5 and 8.0.
(v) Soil Fertility: A fertile soil is the one that contains all essential nutrients and water at the required proportion.
A fertile soil aids the production of food crops, cash crops, and forage crops. It minimizes the use of fertilizers and manures. It leads to reduction in cost of production.
(vi) Topography: Topography refers to the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the earth’s surface. Steep and gentle slope give rise to soil erosion and also aid weathering of rocks.
Even or flat slopes land can be better site for intensive farming.
EVALUATION
1.Itemise the edaphic factors that affect agricultural production.
2.Explain briefly how land relief feature can affect agricultural production.
3.How do soil texture and soil structure influence agricultural production.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The use of land for agriculture is not influenced by (a) labour (b) climate (c) topography (d) soil pH.
2. The most important micro-organism causing decay and nutrient recycling are (a) bacteria and algae (b) bacteria and fungi (c) Algae and actinomycetes (d) fungi and algae.
3. The relative proportion of each fraction of soil in a soil sample determines (a) texture (b) structure (c) profile (d) catena.
4. A piece of land can be considered more suitable for livestock production than for crop production when it is (a) stormy (b) fertile (c) moderately marshy (d) infected with weeds.
5. The total land area of a country available for farming depends on the (a) climate of the area (b) level of literacy of farmers (c) number of houses and structure (d) sex distribution of the population.
ESSAY TEST
1. Explain five ways in which high rainfall affects agricultural production.
2. (i) List six environmental factors affecting agricultural production. (ii) explain hoe three of the factors in (i) can affect agricultural production in Nigeria.
3. Discuses five economic importance of pests and disease in agricultural production.
4. Explain briefly how the following affect crop production: (i) soil texture (ii) soil pH (iii) soil living organisms.
5. State two each of (i) climate (ii) biotic, and (iii) edaphic factors affecting production of crops and animals in your country.
WEEK – END ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural science for senior secondary schools, Book 1 by M.O Adeniji. Et al
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Rock formation and type of rock.
WEEK END ACTIVITY: (a) list 3 types of rock (b) describe the process of their formation
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Evans Agricultural science for SS Book 1 by M.O Adeniji et al: Evans Brother Nigeria.
2. Agricultural science for SSS book 1 by Ashimolowo et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
SUB TOPIC:
(i) Climate factors
(ii) Biotic factors
(iii) Edaphic factors
Agricultural activities such as crop and livestock production are affected by several environment factors.
These environment factors determine and influence the distribution of crops and livestock as well as the performance and productivity of crops and livestock.
SUBTOPIC: CLIMATIC FACTORS
Climate can be defines as the average weather condition of a place measured over a long period of time. Elements of climate include temperature, sunlight, wind rainfall, relative humidity and cloud cover.
(a) Temperature: is essential for germination and growth of plants. It is necessary for photosynthesis and affects distribution of crops and animals. It affects maturity of crops that is, ripening of fruits. It also determines the rate of evapo-transpiration.
(b) Sunlight: sunlight is necessary for germination and maturity of seeds. It is the major ingredients for photosynthesis. Sunlight account for the opening and closing of the petals of certain flowers e.g sunflower.
Sunlight divides plants into three photo periods:
(i) Long-day plants which require longer day light. For example millet and sorghum.
(ii) Short-day plants which require shorter day light. For example cocoa, kola and oil palm.
(iii) Day-neutral plants which require equal period of day and night, that is about 12 hours of sunlight and darkness respectively for example tomato.
Sunlight is equally essential for the performance and production of poultry. It affects evapo-transpiration. Absence of light lead to etiolation in which the plants leaves becomes pale and the stem elongated.
(c) Wind: Wind refers to air in motion and account for the different seasons in the tropic. for example moisture-laden south west trade wind from the Atlantic Ocean brings raining season while north east trade wind leads to harmattan which helps in the ripening of some fruits like cotton. Wind affects the level of rainfall. It can either increase or deduce evap-transpiration.
Wind is essential for the dispersal of fruits and seeds. It is one of the agents of pollution. It can cause erosion and also causes serious damages to our crops in form of lodging. Wind can spread diseases by camping air borne spores and other pathogens.
(d) Rainfall: rainfall supplies drinking water for animals especially in the desert areas. It determines the distribution and types of crops and animals that can be found in an area. Rainfall also determines the different types of vegetation. For example forest and savannah regions. Rainfall is essential for seed germination and helps to dissolve soil nutrients.
Excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion and leaching.
(e) Relative Humidity: This refers to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere relative humidity results in the formation of rain. High relative humidity can reduce temperature leading to coldness, and reduces evapo-transpiration. High relative humidity leads to mouldiness of feeds in the poultry house. High relative humidity affects food intake and production of farm animals. High relative humidity also aids the growth of disease pathogens.
Relative humidity determines the type of crops growing in an area. For example cocoa will not grow well under low relative humidity while low humidity encourage the growth of grains and grasses.
(f) Cloud Cover: This influences temperature and also affects sunlight. It can determine rainfall of a place. It reduces evapo-transpiration.
EVALUATION: (i) Make a list of climatic factors that affect agricultural production. (ii) Explain briefly how sunlight affects classification of crop plants. (iii) Describe four effects each of: (a) Wind (b) Rainfall (c) Temperature on agricultural production.
SUB TOPIC 2: BIOTIC FACTORS
These are living organism inhabiting the soil. They include predators, parasite, soil micro organisms, pest and disease pathogens and weeds.
(i) Predators: These are organisms that feed on other organism. Products may include lizard, toad, hawk, tiger and lion while prey includes goat, chicks, and insects. Some of them cause a great loss in livestock industry. Some predators are used to control some pests of crops and animals.
(ii) Parasites: A parasite is an organism that line in or on other organism called host. It derives nourishment from the host while the host is injured during the association. It transmits certain diseases to the host. Parasites can live inside the host as endo-parasites such as tapeworm, roundworm and liverfluke. They may also live outside the host as ectoparasites such as ticks, lice and mite. Parasites can also be plants such as parasite weeds like dodder and mistotle. They reduce the quantity and quantity of agricultural products. They may eventually lead to the death of plants and animals if not controlled on time.
(iii) Soil Organisms: these are living organism inhabiting the soil. They include micro organisms like bacteria, fungi and viruses and macro organisms such as earth worms, rodents, millipedes, termites and snails.
Some of them cause diseases in farm animals and crop plant. For example bacteria and fungi cause diseases. Their activities can reduce the quality and quantity of agricultural yields.
Some of the them are also beneficial in agricultural production. For example nitrogen fixing bacteria into the soil. Fingi can help in humus formation and the decomposition of plant materials. Some soil organisms also aid soil aeration, water percolation and fertility of the soil. They help to breakdown organic matter in the soil and help in microbial digestion.
(iv) Pests and disease Pathogen: Pests are those organisms that cause physical damages to crop plants. They include birds, rodents while disease pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, nematodes. They can attack crops while still growing on the field or during storage. They can reduce yields of crops and animals. They may increase cost of production and reduce farmer’s income due to their effects on animals and crop yield. Some pests are vectors of diseases.
(v) Weeds: weeds are plants growing where they are not desired. They complete with crops for water, space, light and food nutrients. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock. They increase cost of production and can act as hosts for certain crop pests.
EVALUATION
1. Enumerate the biotic factors that affect agricultural production.
2. Differentiate with 2 examples each between ectoparasites and endoparasites.
3. State three effects of weeds on agricultural production.
4. Mention four beneficial effects of soil living organisms in agricultural production.
SUB TOPIC 3: EDAPHIC FACTORS
These are soil related factors that affect agricultural production. The major soil factors include soil types, soil texture, soil structure, soil PH, and topography.
(i) Soil types: this is a serious factor in crop production. It determine the kind of crop to be grown and irrigation type to be employed where needs be. It affect the performance of the crops. Soil types include sandy, loamy and clay soil.
(ii) Soil Texture: This refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample. It determines the type of soil in an area. Nutrient availability is also determined by soil texture. It affects water in filtration and retention of the soil. Erosion and leaching can either increase or decrease based on types of crops to be cultivated.
(iii) Soil structure: This refers to the arrangement size and stability of soil aggregate or group. Good soil structure aids the survival of soil organism which in turn aid soil fertility.
Good structure soil reduces soil erosion and flooding thereby helps soil conservation. It also determines percolation rate and water retention capacity of the soil. It determines the ease with which roots penetrate their soil and their ability to thrives well.
(iv) Soil pH: This refers to hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the soil. It is used to determine whether the soil is acidic, basic or neutral. Soil pH determines the crop species that can grow in a habitat. For example tea grows well in acidic soil while maize grows in slightly acidic soil.
Soil pH determines availability of soil organisms. The quantity of soil nutrients varies with the soil pH. Aluminium, iron and manganese dissolve in acid soils, than making them toxic to crop plants. Most tropical crops thrives well in a soil pH of between 5.5 and 8.0.
(v) Soil Fertility: A fertile soil is the one that contains all essential nutrients and water at the required proportion.
A fertile soil aids the production of food crops, cash crops, and forage crops. It minimizes the use of fertilizers and manures. It leads to reduction in cost of production.
(vi) Topography: Topography refers to the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the earth’s surface. Steep and gentle slope give rise to soil erosion and also aid weathering of rocks.
Even or flat slopes land can be better site for intensive farming.
EVALUATION
1.Itemise the edaphic factors that affect agricultural production.
2.Explain briefly how land relief feature can affect agricultural production.
3.How do soil texture and soil structure influence agricultural production.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The use of land for agriculture is not influenced by (a) labour (b) climate (c) topography (d) soil pH.
2. The most important micro-organism causing decay and nutrient recycling are (a) bacteria and algae (b) bacteria and fungi (c) Algae and actinomycetes (d) fungi and algae.
3. The relative proportion of each fraction of soil in a soil sample determines (a) texture (b) structure (c) profile (d) catena.
4. A piece of land can be considered more suitable for livestock production than for crop production when it is (a) stormy (b) fertile (c) moderately marshy (d) infected with weeds.
5. The total land area of a country available for farming depends on the (a) climate of the area (b) level of literacy of farmers (c) number of houses and structure (d) sex distribution of the population.
ESSAY TEST
1. Explain five ways in which high rainfall affects agricultural production.
2. (i) List six environmental factors affecting agricultural production. (ii) explain hoe three of the factors in (i) can affect agricultural production in Nigeria.
3. Discuses five economic importance of pests and disease in agricultural production.
4. Explain briefly how the following affect crop production: (i) soil texture (ii) soil pH (iii) soil living organisms.
5. State two each of (i) climate (ii) biotic, and (iii) edaphic factors affecting production of crops and animals in your country.
WEEK – END ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural science for senior secondary schools, Book 1 by M.O Adeniji. Et al
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Rock formation and type of rock.
WEEK END ACTIVITY: (a) list 3 types of rock (b) describe the process of their formation
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Evans Agricultural science for SS Book 1 by M.O Adeniji et al: Evans Brother Nigeria.
2. Agricultural science for SSS book 1 by Ashimolowo et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
WEEK 4
TOPIC: ROCK FORMATION:
CONTENT:
1. Meaning/process of rock formation
2. Types of rock
Sub topic 1: Meaning /process of rock formation:
Rock is the hard solid material that forms part of the surface of the earth . Rocks are aggregates (mixtures) of minerals.
ROCK FORMATION ( PROCESS OF ROCK FORMATION)
Rocks are formed as a result of volcanic eruptions from earth’s crust. During the volcanic eruption the molten material or magma may remain within or escape to the surface . The magma or lava subsequently cools and solidifies to form glassy crystalline textured mass. In Nigeria rocks are found in Benue,Bauchi,Zaria,Plateau,Illorin,Ondo,Ado-Ekiti,AbakilikiandOgoja in Cross River State.
Some of the magma may cool before reaching the surface of the earth thus forming plutonic rocks (intrusive rocks) while some may reach the surface to form volcanic rocks(extrusive rocks)
Examples of plutonic (intrusive) rocks are granite ,diorite,gabbro,syenite.
Examples of volcanic (extrusive)rock is basalt. Rapid cooling gives rise to fine grained rocks ,while slow cooling gives rise to larger grained rocks.
Rock contains primary and secondary minerals . The primary minerals that exist in the natural form consist of quartz,biotite,olivine, magnesium,iron, and aluminium,sulphate and carbonate of iron,,magnesium and calcium, clay minerals such as the silicate and hydrous oxide.
Secondary rock minerals are: (a) Oxides of metal e.g. sodium oxide(Na₂O).
(b) Mortmorilonite.
Evaluation:
1,Define rock orwhat is rock?(b) explain the following with examples (i) plutonic rock (ii) extrusive rock
2 . Enumerate the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.
Sub topic 2: TYPES OF ROCK.
Rocks are grouped according to their mode of formation, appearance and minerals composition. Based on this analysis, there are three types of rock. They are as follows:
1. Igneous rock
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Metamorphic rock
Igneous rock: This is formed as a result of high temperature and pressure beneath the earth’s crust which causes the liquid material( molten magma) below the earth surface to solidify or erupt in the form of a volcano. There are two types of igneous rock ;
(a) Intrusive or plutonic
(b) Extrusive or volcanic
Examples of igneous rock rocks include :granite,diorite,,gabbro, ( they contain minerials like quart,felspar,and mica) –plutonic,
While basalt and andesite are extrusive.
Characteristics of igneous rock:
1 .They are coarsely crystalline in nature.
2. They are glassy in appearance.
3.They are usually hard and impervious.
4.They are resistant to erosion.
5.They do not contain fossil.
6. Their colours vary from pink, green, grey, or black.
7. They do not form layers .
SEDIMENTARY ROCK:
They are formed when weathered particles are carried from their place of origin and deposited in another area as solid particles or when the pre-existing rocks are broken down by geological denudation agents.The materials carried are usually laid down in stata/sediments/layers.They are usually cemented together by organic matter,cemented agents or pressure.
E.gs of sedimentary rocks are limestone,sandstone,coal,dolomite,clay,shale,mudstone,peat,lignit,and gypsum.
Types of sedimentary rock
1.Mechanicallyfomed sedimentary rocks
2.Organically sedimentary rocks
3.Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are known as secondary rocks.They are formed as a result of accumulation and cementation of weathered materials over a period of time.e.gs are dolomite,conglomerates,sandstone,limestone and quarzites.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of deposition and hardening shell sand skeleton of aquatic organisms such as fish, oyster shells and snails e.gs are coal,peat,graphite and lignit. The remains of plants and animals found in sedimentary rocks are known as fossils.
Chemically formed sedimentary rocks are as a result of chemical reaction of minerals in the rocks, precipitates are formed and deposited in layers over time .e.g sodium chloride, gypsum and nitrate.
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks :
1They occur in layers(stratified).
2.They contains fossils (dead plants and animals).
3. They are prone to erosion.
4. They formed precipitates.
5. They react with weak acids.
6. They are soft.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
These are derived from pre-existing sedimentary or igneous rocks by the agents of metamorphism such as heat,pressure and chemical change.
Examples include: Gneiss,Schist,Quartzite,marble,Slate.
METAMORPHIC ROCK.
Evaluation:1. List 3 types of rock and give 3 e.g in each.
Importance of rocks in agriculture:
1 . For soil formation.
2. Plants nutrients which are utilized by plants are derived from rocks. E.gs are Magnesium, calcium and Potassium.
3. For road construction and farm building.
Other uses of rocks include:
1. Domestic use- as grinding stone.
2. Source of metals- granite, silver, copper,etc.
3. Source of fuel- petroleum and coal
4. As an ornamentals-
5. Exportation
6. As raw materials (e.g limestone, dolomite, marble) for our industries
7. Sources of minerials (food) rock salt such as sodium chloride (table salt).
Weekend assignment: Classify the following into Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock: Gabbro, Marble, Dolomite, Slate, Coal and Limestone.
Pre-reading assignment: Read on soil formation as the next topic.
Weekend activity: Go round your school premises and gather some samples of rock and identify each of the following rock samples Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Write down 5 features each of the identified rocks:
General evaluation:
Essay questions:
1.Enumerate the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.
2.List three major types of rocks . (b)Describe the process by which the various types of rocks listed in (2a) above are formed.
3. Give 3 examples each of the following types of rocks: (i) Igneous (ii) sedimentary rock
(iii) Metamorphic rock.
Objectives test:
1.One of the following is NOT a primary rock mineral. A. Quartz B. Mica C. Feldspars D. Sand E. Olivine.
2.All the following are organically formed sedimentary rocks Except A. Lignite. B.CoalC.Dolomite. D. Petroleum. E.Peat.
3.One of the following is formed from the cooling of molten magma.A. Igneous rock B. C. Which of the following is an example Igneous rock? A.Gneiss B. Limestone C.Sandstone C. Granite E. Quartzite.
4.Gneiss is a metamorphic rock formed from A. Sandstone B. Slate C.Shale D. Clay E. Granite
5.The most common soil mineral found in all crystalline rocks and a main constituent of sand stone is A. Biotite. B. Quartz C. Mica D. Granite E. Basalt
Reference texts: 1. Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by M.O.Adeleji e tal.
2.Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by Ogieva
3. Round-Up Agricultural Science-A complete Guide by S. O.Olaitan e tal.
CONTENT:
1. Meaning/process of rock formation
2. Types of rock
Sub topic 1: Meaning /process of rock formation:
Rock is the hard solid material that forms part of the surface of the earth . Rocks are aggregates (mixtures) of minerals.
ROCK FORMATION ( PROCESS OF ROCK FORMATION)
Rocks are formed as a result of volcanic eruptions from earth’s crust. During the volcanic eruption the molten material or magma may remain within or escape to the surface . The magma or lava subsequently cools and solidifies to form glassy crystalline textured mass. In Nigeria rocks are found in Benue,Bauchi,Zaria,Plateau,Illorin,Ondo,Ado-Ekiti,AbakilikiandOgoja in Cross River State.
Some of the magma may cool before reaching the surface of the earth thus forming plutonic rocks (intrusive rocks) while some may reach the surface to form volcanic rocks(extrusive rocks)
Examples of plutonic (intrusive) rocks are granite ,diorite,gabbro,syenite.
Examples of volcanic (extrusive)rock is basalt. Rapid cooling gives rise to fine grained rocks ,while slow cooling gives rise to larger grained rocks.
Rock contains primary and secondary minerals . The primary minerals that exist in the natural form consist of quartz,biotite,olivine, magnesium,iron, and aluminium,sulphate and carbonate of iron,,magnesium and calcium, clay minerals such as the silicate and hydrous oxide.
Secondary rock minerals are: (a) Oxides of metal e.g. sodium oxide(Na₂O).
(b) Mortmorilonite.
Evaluation:
1,Define rock orwhat is rock?(b) explain the following with examples (i) plutonic rock (ii) extrusive rock
2 . Enumerate the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.
Sub topic 2: TYPES OF ROCK.
Rocks are grouped according to their mode of formation, appearance and minerals composition. Based on this analysis, there are three types of rock. They are as follows:
1. Igneous rock
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Metamorphic rock
Igneous rock: This is formed as a result of high temperature and pressure beneath the earth’s crust which causes the liquid material( molten magma) below the earth surface to solidify or erupt in the form of a volcano. There are two types of igneous rock ;
(a) Intrusive or plutonic
(b) Extrusive or volcanic
Examples of igneous rock rocks include :granite,diorite,,gabbro, ( they contain minerials like quart,felspar,and mica) –plutonic,
While basalt and andesite are extrusive.
Characteristics of igneous rock:
1 .They are coarsely crystalline in nature.
2. They are glassy in appearance.
3.They are usually hard and impervious.
4.They are resistant to erosion.
5.They do not contain fossil.
6. Their colours vary from pink, green, grey, or black.
7. They do not form layers .
SEDIMENTARY ROCK:
They are formed when weathered particles are carried from their place of origin and deposited in another area as solid particles or when the pre-existing rocks are broken down by geological denudation agents.The materials carried are usually laid down in stata/sediments/layers.They are usually cemented together by organic matter,cemented agents or pressure.
E.gs of sedimentary rocks are limestone,sandstone,coal,dolomite,clay,shale,mudstone,peat,lignit,and gypsum.
Types of sedimentary rock
1.Mechanicallyfomed sedimentary rocks
2.Organically sedimentary rocks
3.Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are known as secondary rocks.They are formed as a result of accumulation and cementation of weathered materials over a period of time.e.gs are dolomite,conglomerates,sandstone,limestone and quarzites.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of deposition and hardening shell sand skeleton of aquatic organisms such as fish, oyster shells and snails e.gs are coal,peat,graphite and lignit. The remains of plants and animals found in sedimentary rocks are known as fossils.
Chemically formed sedimentary rocks are as a result of chemical reaction of minerals in the rocks, precipitates are formed and deposited in layers over time .e.g sodium chloride, gypsum and nitrate.
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks :
1They occur in layers(stratified).
2.They contains fossils (dead plants and animals).
3. They are prone to erosion.
4. They formed precipitates.
5. They react with weak acids.
6. They are soft.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
These are derived from pre-existing sedimentary or igneous rocks by the agents of metamorphism such as heat,pressure and chemical change.
Examples include: Gneiss,Schist,Quartzite,marble,Slate.
METAMORPHIC ROCK.
Evaluation:1. List 3 types of rock and give 3 e.g in each.
Importance of rocks in agriculture:
1 . For soil formation.
2. Plants nutrients which are utilized by plants are derived from rocks. E.gs are Magnesium, calcium and Potassium.
3. For road construction and farm building.
Other uses of rocks include:
1. Domestic use- as grinding stone.
2. Source of metals- granite, silver, copper,etc.
3. Source of fuel- petroleum and coal
4. As an ornamentals-
5. Exportation
6. As raw materials (e.g limestone, dolomite, marble) for our industries
7. Sources of minerials (food) rock salt such as sodium chloride (table salt).
Weekend assignment: Classify the following into Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock: Gabbro, Marble, Dolomite, Slate, Coal and Limestone.
Pre-reading assignment: Read on soil formation as the next topic.
Weekend activity: Go round your school premises and gather some samples of rock and identify each of the following rock samples Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Write down 5 features each of the identified rocks:
General evaluation:
Essay questions:
1.Enumerate the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.
2.List three major types of rocks . (b)Describe the process by which the various types of rocks listed in (2a) above are formed.
3. Give 3 examples each of the following types of rocks: (i) Igneous (ii) sedimentary rock
(iii) Metamorphic rock.
Objectives test:
1.One of the following is NOT a primary rock mineral. A. Quartz B. Mica C. Feldspars D. Sand E. Olivine.
2.All the following are organically formed sedimentary rocks Except A. Lignite. B.CoalC.Dolomite. D. Petroleum. E.Peat.
3.One of the following is formed from the cooling of molten magma.A. Igneous rock B. C. Which of the following is an example Igneous rock? A.Gneiss B. Limestone C.Sandstone C. Granite E. Quartzite.
4.Gneiss is a metamorphic rock formed from A. Sandstone B. Slate C.Shale D. Clay E. Granite
5.The most common soil mineral found in all crystalline rocks and a main constituent of sand stone is A. Biotite. B. Quartz C. Mica D. Granite E. Basalt
Reference texts: 1. Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by M.O.Adeleji e tal.
2.Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by Ogieva
3. Round-Up Agricultural Science-A complete Guide by S. O.Olaitan e tal.
WEEK 5
TOPIC: SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT.
CONTENT:
1. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
2. PROCESS ES OF SOIL FORMATION
3. SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction: soil is very important factor for agricultural activity and survival of man. Soil is the loose weathered materials covering the surface of the earth, which supports life. It can also be defined as the outer mantle of the earth that formed from mixture of minerals and decaying organic matter which extends from the surface down to the limit of biological forces.
Sub topic 1:
Factors of soil formation:
The transformation of rocks into soil is referred to as soil formation.The first stage in the process of soil formation is the weathering of rocks which involves the breaking of rocks into smaller particles and eventually into individual minerals that the rock is composed of. Weathering of rock can either be physical such a through water, wind, Pressure, ice and temperature, or chemical which involves changes in the chemical composition of the rock.There are a number of factors that influence the rate, type and quality of soil formed in a location.
F ACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
There are five factors that determine or influence soil formation, namely:
1.Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Living organisms
5. Time
Parent material: The type of materials, that is structure, texture, and mineral composition present in the parent rock will also determine the type of soil formed Parent materials are important in the following ways:
1. Determining the properties of the soil e.g coarse, grain soils are formed from granite or gneiss
2. Coarse parent materials form coarse-textured and well-drained soils.
3. Rocks containing calcite, feldspar will produce deep heavy soils like clayey soils.
4. Quartz, Hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils.
5. Shale andlimestone parent materials yield soils that are fine-textured, poorly drained and with high mineral content.
Climate:- This the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time.
Climatic factors include the following:
i. Rainfall
ii. Temperature
iii. Wind
iv. Relative humidity
v. Pressure
Rainfall: Helps in the dissolution of chemicals from the parent materials and also in transporting broken down materials.
Temperature: Effect of temperature leads to expansion and contraction of rocks. Rock mineral with low expansively will break away to form soil.Also rock holes may retain water which freezes up at night and melts during the day, leading to disintegration of rocks.
Wind: wind can carry materials which collide with rock surfaces leading to breaking of rocks into tiny particles.
Relative humidity: This can supply moisture thereby encouraging the breaking of rocks particles into soil.
Pressure: This can lead to the breaking of large rock particles into tiny soil particles.
TOPOGRAPHY:
Relief or topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as hills, valleys or flat land. It may also mean the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the
earth surface. The effect may include the following:
1.The shape of the land affect s the movement and amount of water in the soil.
2.Hilly and sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation. A flat land exposes the surface to equal environmental factors and therefore delays soil formation.
LIVING ORGANISMS:
This refers to the activities of plants, microbes, rodents, man. Their effects will help to encourage soil formation in the following ways ;
Animals such as rodents, earthworms, termite, etc burrow into the rocks , and living the holes or cracks in therocks,they exert pressures which break off fragments of rock.
The activities of man during farm operation and construction contribute to the breaking down of rocks into smaller particles especially when ploughing machines are employed.
The root of higher plants exert prying effect on rock to cause break down Also plan’s root exude certain substances which may cause dissolution of rock minerals, hence resulting in soil formation.
TIME: This constitute an important factor to soil formation, the breaking down of rocks and decomposition of organic materials takes some time, the time may be short or long. Time determine the age of the soil, that is, a young or an old soil. Young soils have poor water-holding capacity, mineral content and life sustenance. Oil soil are rich in everything because all the factors of like climate, parent material, topography and living organisms take time to register the effects on the soil formed. Also it takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.
Evaluation: 1. List and discuss four factors that affect formation of soil.
Sub topic 2: Processes of soil formation:
This refers to all the activities that will lead to the weathering of rocks. Weathering of rocks is the disintegration of rocks into tiny particles to form soil. Weathering is a complex series of changes or processes which take place in transformation of rocks and their constituent minerals into soil. The changes or process of formation include the following:
Physical process
Biological process
Chemical process
Physical processes: Are mostly climatic factors like temperature, running water ,ice, wind and pressure.
Temperature- temperature changes bring s about different expansion and contractions of minerals thus creating stress in the rocks, leading to the eventual break down of the rocks.
Running water- Carries small rock particles (stone) and pebbles which collide and get broken into smaller particles. Through the erosional forces by the running water portions of rock could be cut off and crushed which later form soil minerals.
Ice- ice is an important agent of weathering in temperate regions, extremely low temperatures brings about frozen of water which is collected in the cervices of rock. The increase volume of the ice exerts considerable pressure on its surrounding leading to the breakdown of the rock.
Wind- Wind is important in arid regions and in tropical areas, especially during the dry weather. Wind is air in motion .In the tropical areas especially during the dry weather, wind can be laden with sand particles and dunes which result in abrasive forces and expose massive rock thereby resulting in disintegration.
Biological processes: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the breaking down of rocks to form soil. Plant roots penetrate mineral rock cervices which crack and cause physical splitting of the rocks and minerals Animals help in weathering by burrowing into the rock. Human beings also help through cultivation and ploughing.
Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering is the reaction of rock minerals with water. The processes include hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis- Is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule are used to replace the metallic elements in a rock mineral. This is otherwise known as the reaction of water with rock minerals catalyzed by hydrogen to form a strong alkaline disintegrates the rock
KAlSi₃O₈ + H2O HAlsi3O8 +KOH
Hydration: This the regid attachment of water molecules to a rock mineral e.g the changing of haematite ( red) to limonite(yellow). The newly formed rock will disintegrate due to instability.
Fe2O3+ 3H2O ___________ Fe2O3. 3H2O
Red (haematite) yellow (limonite)
Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock minerals or salts) to form solution. The substances formed will be carried away and deposited elsewhere to form soil.
Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with water molecules to form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks.
e.g 1.Carbondioxide reacts with water to form weak trioxocarbonate iv acid.
CO2 +H2O _____ H2CO3
E.g 2 Sulphurdioxide reacts water to form weak trioxosulphate iv acid.
SO2 + H2O ______ H2CO3.
oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen from a rock mineral or the process of electron loss. During weathering ,the most significant e.g of oxidation is the conversion of iron ii to iron iii. Rock minerals
-Siderite is changed to haematite.
Reduction: This simply means the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of oxygen from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.
Evaluation: 1.what is rock weathering? (b) state two factors of agricultural importance of weathering. 2.Mention five factors of soil formation and any four.
Subtopic 3: Soil profile development: Refers to the vertical cross of the soil from the surface into the underlying weathered materials. There are four(4) distinct layers or horizons or stratas.
The top soil is referred as A- horizon while the sub soil is B-horizon. Parent material is C-horizon and the bed rock is D-horizon.
A—Horizon: This consists of two layers:
The organic matter layer and top soil. The organic matter layer contains dead plan and animal materials, decayed, decaying organic matter (Humus). This is usually dark in colour. The top soil is the upper layer of the soil immediately after organic matter layer. It contains bacteria, worms and fungi .It is rich in soil nutrients.
B_Horizon: The B- Horizon is the sub soil. It is greyish or brownish in colour. The sub soil can be divided into two layers based on its colour. The upper layer is dark in colour and contains coarse sandy loam, fibrous branches, taproots, bacteria, fungi, worms, termites. The second layer is yellowish in colour. It contains sandy loam, little of humus, taproots and is the richest part of the sub soil.
C--- Horizon: The horizon – c or parent materials layer is reddish orange, gravelly and contains sandy clay soils. The clay content is very high and taproots can be seen here occasionally.
D--- Horizon: This is the bed rock, and an area in which rocks had not been transformed .It consists of unweathered rocks.
Importance of soil profile:
1. It helps to determine the level of soil fertility.
2. It determines the types of crop to be grown in a particular area.
3. The level of parent material determines the type of mineral salt available to plants.
4. It determines the level of drainage and irrigation of the soil.
5. It determines easy penetration of roots of crops.
General evaluation:
1. Explain briefly the processes of formation of:
(i) Igneous rocks. (ii) Sedimentary . (iii) Metamorphic rocks. (b) Give 3 examples of each.
2. Discuss briefly five factors which affect soil formation.
3. Discuss the role of climate in soil formation .(b) explain briefly four types of chemical weathering.
4. What is “ soil profile”? Give two example of places it could be found. (a) State in detail the effect of humus on either sandy or clay soils. (c) Why is it important that soil profile should be studied?
5. Write an essay on soil organisms and their role in soil formation and fertility.
Objective questions:
1. The physical components of the soil are derived mainly from the (a) subsoil (b) topsoil (c) dead organic materials. (d) marbles (e) rocks.
2. All of these are factors of soil formation except (a) rain (b) day length (c) soil organisms (d) erosion (e) temperature.
A mineral element which combines with oxygen and causes rocks to disintegrate is (a) copper (b)ferrous iron (c) ferric iron (d) calcium (e) silicon.
3. An organism which is not regarded as helpful during soil formation process is (a) earthworm (b) termite (c) rat (d) snail (e) moses
4. What part of soil profile exerts a significant influence on the properties of the soil? (a) B- horizon (b) horizon A (c) horizon –C (d) horizon D. (e) horizons A and B.
5. Which soil fraction first settled down at the bottom(a) organic material (b) sand (c) silt (d) clay (e) colloids.
Weekend assignment:write short note on the following : (1) horizon-A, B, C and D.
2. Describe briefly six ways in which soil organisms aid the formation of soil.
3.Define weathering state two types of weathering.
4. A vertical section was made through a piece of virgin land by means of a labeled diagram, illustrate what would be observed from the vertical section (ii) What is the name given to the diagram in (4i)?
Pre-reading assignment: Read about the types of soil ,composition and properties of soil.
Weekend activity: Read from pages 63-69 of Evans Agricultural Science for more information and attempt all the revision questions on pages 70-71.
Reference texts: Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor
2.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 by M.O.Adeniji e tal.
3. Prescribed Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by S.A.Omoruyie tal.
4. Melrose Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools1 by B O Ahimolowo e tal.
CONTENT:
1. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
2. PROCESS ES OF SOIL FORMATION
3. SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction: soil is very important factor for agricultural activity and survival of man. Soil is the loose weathered materials covering the surface of the earth, which supports life. It can also be defined as the outer mantle of the earth that formed from mixture of minerals and decaying organic matter which extends from the surface down to the limit of biological forces.
Sub topic 1:
Factors of soil formation:
The transformation of rocks into soil is referred to as soil formation.The first stage in the process of soil formation is the weathering of rocks which involves the breaking of rocks into smaller particles and eventually into individual minerals that the rock is composed of. Weathering of rock can either be physical such a through water, wind, Pressure, ice and temperature, or chemical which involves changes in the chemical composition of the rock.There are a number of factors that influence the rate, type and quality of soil formed in a location.
F ACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
There are five factors that determine or influence soil formation, namely:
1.Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Living organisms
5. Time
Parent material: The type of materials, that is structure, texture, and mineral composition present in the parent rock will also determine the type of soil formed Parent materials are important in the following ways:
1. Determining the properties of the soil e.g coarse, grain soils are formed from granite or gneiss
2. Coarse parent materials form coarse-textured and well-drained soils.
3. Rocks containing calcite, feldspar will produce deep heavy soils like clayey soils.
4. Quartz, Hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils.
5. Shale andlimestone parent materials yield soils that are fine-textured, poorly drained and with high mineral content.
Climate:- This the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time.
Climatic factors include the following:
i. Rainfall
ii. Temperature
iii. Wind
iv. Relative humidity
v. Pressure
Rainfall: Helps in the dissolution of chemicals from the parent materials and also in transporting broken down materials.
Temperature: Effect of temperature leads to expansion and contraction of rocks. Rock mineral with low expansively will break away to form soil.Also rock holes may retain water which freezes up at night and melts during the day, leading to disintegration of rocks.
Wind: wind can carry materials which collide with rock surfaces leading to breaking of rocks into tiny particles.
Relative humidity: This can supply moisture thereby encouraging the breaking of rocks particles into soil.
Pressure: This can lead to the breaking of large rock particles into tiny soil particles.
TOPOGRAPHY:
Relief or topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as hills, valleys or flat land. It may also mean the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the
earth surface. The effect may include the following:
1.The shape of the land affect s the movement and amount of water in the soil.
2.Hilly and sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation. A flat land exposes the surface to equal environmental factors and therefore delays soil formation.
LIVING ORGANISMS:
This refers to the activities of plants, microbes, rodents, man. Their effects will help to encourage soil formation in the following ways ;
Animals such as rodents, earthworms, termite, etc burrow into the rocks , and living the holes or cracks in therocks,they exert pressures which break off fragments of rock.
The activities of man during farm operation and construction contribute to the breaking down of rocks into smaller particles especially when ploughing machines are employed.
The root of higher plants exert prying effect on rock to cause break down Also plan’s root exude certain substances which may cause dissolution of rock minerals, hence resulting in soil formation.
TIME: This constitute an important factor to soil formation, the breaking down of rocks and decomposition of organic materials takes some time, the time may be short or long. Time determine the age of the soil, that is, a young or an old soil. Young soils have poor water-holding capacity, mineral content and life sustenance. Oil soil are rich in everything because all the factors of like climate, parent material, topography and living organisms take time to register the effects on the soil formed. Also it takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.
Evaluation: 1. List and discuss four factors that affect formation of soil.
Sub topic 2: Processes of soil formation:
This refers to all the activities that will lead to the weathering of rocks. Weathering of rocks is the disintegration of rocks into tiny particles to form soil. Weathering is a complex series of changes or processes which take place in transformation of rocks and their constituent minerals into soil. The changes or process of formation include the following:
Physical process
Biological process
Chemical process
Physical processes: Are mostly climatic factors like temperature, running water ,ice, wind and pressure.
Temperature- temperature changes bring s about different expansion and contractions of minerals thus creating stress in the rocks, leading to the eventual break down of the rocks.
Running water- Carries small rock particles (stone) and pebbles which collide and get broken into smaller particles. Through the erosional forces by the running water portions of rock could be cut off and crushed which later form soil minerals.
Ice- ice is an important agent of weathering in temperate regions, extremely low temperatures brings about frozen of water which is collected in the cervices of rock. The increase volume of the ice exerts considerable pressure on its surrounding leading to the breakdown of the rock.
Wind- Wind is important in arid regions and in tropical areas, especially during the dry weather. Wind is air in motion .In the tropical areas especially during the dry weather, wind can be laden with sand particles and dunes which result in abrasive forces and expose massive rock thereby resulting in disintegration.
Biological processes: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the breaking down of rocks to form soil. Plant roots penetrate mineral rock cervices which crack and cause physical splitting of the rocks and minerals Animals help in weathering by burrowing into the rock. Human beings also help through cultivation and ploughing.
Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering is the reaction of rock minerals with water. The processes include hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis- Is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule are used to replace the metallic elements in a rock mineral. This is otherwise known as the reaction of water with rock minerals catalyzed by hydrogen to form a strong alkaline disintegrates the rock
KAlSi₃O₈ + H2O HAlsi3O8 +KOH
Hydration: This the regid attachment of water molecules to a rock mineral e.g the changing of haematite ( red) to limonite(yellow). The newly formed rock will disintegrate due to instability.
Fe2O3+ 3H2O ___________ Fe2O3. 3H2O
Red (haematite) yellow (limonite)
Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock minerals or salts) to form solution. The substances formed will be carried away and deposited elsewhere to form soil.
Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with water molecules to form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks.
e.g 1.Carbondioxide reacts with water to form weak trioxocarbonate iv acid.
CO2 +H2O _____ H2CO3
E.g 2 Sulphurdioxide reacts water to form weak trioxosulphate iv acid.
SO2 + H2O ______ H2CO3.
oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen from a rock mineral or the process of electron loss. During weathering ,the most significant e.g of oxidation is the conversion of iron ii to iron iii. Rock minerals
-Siderite is changed to haematite.
Reduction: This simply means the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of oxygen from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.
Evaluation: 1.what is rock weathering? (b) state two factors of agricultural importance of weathering. 2.Mention five factors of soil formation and any four.
Subtopic 3: Soil profile development: Refers to the vertical cross of the soil from the surface into the underlying weathered materials. There are four(4) distinct layers or horizons or stratas.
The top soil is referred as A- horizon while the sub soil is B-horizon. Parent material is C-horizon and the bed rock is D-horizon.
A—Horizon: This consists of two layers:
The organic matter layer and top soil. The organic matter layer contains dead plan and animal materials, decayed, decaying organic matter (Humus). This is usually dark in colour. The top soil is the upper layer of the soil immediately after organic matter layer. It contains bacteria, worms and fungi .It is rich in soil nutrients.
B_Horizon: The B- Horizon is the sub soil. It is greyish or brownish in colour. The sub soil can be divided into two layers based on its colour. The upper layer is dark in colour and contains coarse sandy loam, fibrous branches, taproots, bacteria, fungi, worms, termites. The second layer is yellowish in colour. It contains sandy loam, little of humus, taproots and is the richest part of the sub soil.
C--- Horizon: The horizon – c or parent materials layer is reddish orange, gravelly and contains sandy clay soils. The clay content is very high and taproots can be seen here occasionally.
D--- Horizon: This is the bed rock, and an area in which rocks had not been transformed .It consists of unweathered rocks.
Importance of soil profile:
1. It helps to determine the level of soil fertility.
2. It determines the types of crop to be grown in a particular area.
3. The level of parent material determines the type of mineral salt available to plants.
4. It determines the level of drainage and irrigation of the soil.
5. It determines easy penetration of roots of crops.
General evaluation:
1. Explain briefly the processes of formation of:
(i) Igneous rocks. (ii) Sedimentary . (iii) Metamorphic rocks. (b) Give 3 examples of each.
2. Discuss briefly five factors which affect soil formation.
3. Discuss the role of climate in soil formation .(b) explain briefly four types of chemical weathering.
4. What is “ soil profile”? Give two example of places it could be found. (a) State in detail the effect of humus on either sandy or clay soils. (c) Why is it important that soil profile should be studied?
5. Write an essay on soil organisms and their role in soil formation and fertility.
Objective questions:
1. The physical components of the soil are derived mainly from the (a) subsoil (b) topsoil (c) dead organic materials. (d) marbles (e) rocks.
2. All of these are factors of soil formation except (a) rain (b) day length (c) soil organisms (d) erosion (e) temperature.
A mineral element which combines with oxygen and causes rocks to disintegrate is (a) copper (b)ferrous iron (c) ferric iron (d) calcium (e) silicon.
3. An organism which is not regarded as helpful during soil formation process is (a) earthworm (b) termite (c) rat (d) snail (e) moses
4. What part of soil profile exerts a significant influence on the properties of the soil? (a) B- horizon (b) horizon A (c) horizon –C (d) horizon D. (e) horizons A and B.
5. Which soil fraction first settled down at the bottom(a) organic material (b) sand (c) silt (d) clay (e) colloids.
Weekend assignment:write short note on the following : (1) horizon-A, B, C and D.
2. Describe briefly six ways in which soil organisms aid the formation of soil.
3.Define weathering state two types of weathering.
4. A vertical section was made through a piece of virgin land by means of a labeled diagram, illustrate what would be observed from the vertical section (ii) What is the name given to the diagram in (4i)?
Pre-reading assignment: Read about the types of soil ,composition and properties of soil.
Weekend activity: Read from pages 63-69 of Evans Agricultural Science for more information and attempt all the revision questions on pages 70-71.
Reference texts: Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor
2.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 by M.O.Adeniji e tal.
3. Prescribed Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by S.A.Omoruyie tal.
4. Melrose Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools1 by B O Ahimolowo e tal.
WEEK 6
TOPIC: SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT.
CONTENT:
1. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
2. PROCESS ES OF SOIL FORMATION
3. SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction: soil is very important factor for agricultural activity and survival of man. Soil is the loose weathered materials covering the surface of the earth, which supports life. It can also be defined as the outer mantle of the earth that formed from mixture of minerals and decaying organic matter which extends from the surface down to the limit of biological forces.
Sub topic 1:
Factors of soil formation:
The transformation of rocks into soil is referred to as soil formation.The first stage in the process of soil formation is the weathering of rocks which involves the breaking of rocks into smaller particles and eventually into individual minerals that the rock is composed of. Weathering of rock can either be physical such a through water, wind, Pressure, ice and temperature, or chemical which involves changes in the chemical composition of the rock.There are a number of factors that influence the rate, type and quality of soil formed in a location.
F ACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
There are five factors that determine or influence soil formation, namely:
1.Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Living organisms
5. Time
Parent material: The type of materials, that is structure, texture, and mineral composition present in the parent rock will also determine the type of soil formed Parent materials are important in the following ways:
1. Determining the properties of the soil e.g coarse, grain soils are formed from granite or gneiss
2. Coarse parent materials form coarse-textured and well-drained soils.
3. Rocks containing calcite, feldspar will produce deep heavy soils like clayey soils.
4. Quartz, Hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils.
5. Shale andlimestone parent materials yield soils that are fine-textured, poorly drained and with high mineral content.
Climate:- This the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time.
Climatic factors include the following:
i. Rainfall
ii. Temperature
iii. Wind
iv. Relative humidity
v. Pressure
Rainfall: Helps in the dissolution of chemicals from the parent materials and also in transporting broken down materials.
Temperature: Effect of temperature leads to expansion and contraction of rocks. Rock mineral with low expansively will break away to form soil.Also rock holes may retain water which freezes up at night and melts during the day, leading to disintegration of rocks.
Wind: wind can carry materials which collide with rock surfaces leading to breaking of rocks into tiny particles.
Relative humidity: This can supply moisture thereby encouraging the breaking of rocks particles into soil.
Pressure: This can lead to the breaking of large rock particles into tiny soil particles.
TOPOGRAPHY:
Relief or topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as hills, valleys or flat land. It may also mean the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the
earth surface. The effect may include the following:
1.The shape of the land affect s the movement and amount of water in the soil.
2.Hilly and sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation. A flat land exposes the surface to equal environmental factors and therefore delays soil formation.
LIVING ORGANISMS:
This refers to the activities of plants, microbes, rodents, man. Their effects will help to encourage soil formation in the following ways ;
Animals such as rodents, earthworms, termite, etc burrow into the rocks , and living the holes or cracks in therocks,they exert pressures which break off fragments of rock.
The activities of man during farm operation and construction contribute to the breaking down of rocks into smaller particles especially when ploughing machines are employed.
The root of higher plants exert prying effect on rock to cause break down Also plan’s root exude certain substances which may cause dissolution of rock minerals, hence resulting in soil formation.
TIME: This constitute an important factor to soil formation, the breaking down of rocks and decomposition of organic materials takes some time, the time may be short or long. Time determine the age of the soil, that is, a young or an old soil. Young soils have poor water-holding capacity, mineral content and life sustenance. Oil soil are rich in everything because all the factors of like climate, parent material, topography and living organisms take time to register the effects on the soil formed. Also it takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.
Evaluation: 1. List and discuss four factors that affect formation of soil.
Sub topic 2: Processes of soil formation:
This refers to all the activities that will lead to the weathering of rocks. Weathering of rocks is the disintegration of rocks into tiny particles to form soil. Weathering is a complex series of changes or processes which take place in transformation of rocks and their constituent minerals into soil. The changes or process of formation include the following:
Physical process
Biological process
Chemical process
Physical processes: Are mostly climatic factors like temperature, running water ,ice, wind and pressure.
Temperature- temperature changes bring s about different expansion and contractions of minerals thus creating stress in the rocks, leading to the eventual break down of the rocks.
Running water- Carries small rock particles (stone) and pebbles which collide and get broken into smaller particles. Through the erosional forces by the running water portions of rock could be cut off and crushed which later form soil minerals.
Ice- ice is an important agent of weathering in temperate regions, extremely low temperatures brings about frozen of water which is collected in the cervices of rock. The increase volume of the ice exerts considerable pressure on its surrounding leading to the breakdown of the rock.
Wind- Wind is important in arid regions and in tropical areas, especially during the dry weather. Wind is air in motion .In the tropical areas especially during the dry weather, wind can be laden with sand particles and dunes which result in abrasive forces and expose massive rock thereby resulting in disintegration.
Biological processes: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the breaking down of rocks to form soil. Plant roots penetrate mineral rock cervices which crack and cause physical splitting of the rocks and minerals Animals help in weathering by burrowing into the rock. Human beings also help through cultivation and ploughing.
Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering is the reaction of rock minerals with water. The processes include hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis- Is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule are used to replace the metallic elements in a rock mineral. This is otherwise known as the reaction of water with rock minerals catalyzed by hydrogen to form a strong alkaline disintegrates the rock
KAlSi₃O₈ + H2O HAlsi3O8 +KOH
Hydration: This the regid attachment of water molecules to a rock mineral e.g the changing of haematite ( red) to limonite(yellow). The newly formed rock will disintegrate due to instability.
Fe2O3+ 3H2O ___________ Fe2O3. 3H2O
Red (haematite) yellow (limonite)
Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock minerals or salts) to form solution. The substances formed will be carried away and deposited elsewhere to form soil.
Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with water molecules to form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks.
e.g 1.Carbondioxide reacts with water to form weak trioxocarbonate iv acid.
CO2 +H2O _____ H2CO3
E.g 2 Sulphurdioxide reacts water to form weak trioxosulphate iv acid.
SO2 + H2O ______ H2CO3.
oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen from a rock mineral or the process of electron loss. During weathering ,the most significant e.g of oxidation is the conversion of iron ii to iron iii. Rock minerals
-Siderite is changed to haematite.
Reduction: This simply means the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of oxygen from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.
Evaluation: 1.what is rock weathering? (b) state two factors of agricultural importance of weathering. 2.Mention five factors of soil formation and any four.
Subtopic 3: Soil profile development: Refers to the vertical cross of the soil from the surface into the underlying weathered materials. There are four(4) distinct layers or horizons or stratas.
The top soil is referred as A- horizon while the sub soil is B-horizon. Parent material is C-horizon and the bed rock is D-horizon.
A—Horizon: This consists of two layers:
The organic matter layer and top soil. The organic matter layer contains dead plan and animal materials, decayed, decaying organic matter (Humus). This is usually dark in colour. The top soil is the upper layer of the soil immediately after organic matter layer. It contains bacteria, worms and fungi .It is rich in soil nutrients.
B_Horizon: The B- Horizon is the sub soil. It is greyish or brownish in colour. The sub soil can be divided into two layers based on its colour. The upper layer is dark in colour and contains coarse sandy loam, fibrous branches, taproots, bacteria, fungi, worms, termites. The second layer is yellowish in colour. It contains sandy loam, little of humus, taproots and is the richest part of the sub soil.
C--- Horizon: The horizon – c or parent materials layer is reddish orange, gravelly and contains sandy clay soils. The clay content is very high and taproots can be seen here occasionally.
D--- Horizon: This is the bed rock, and an area in which rocks had not been transformed .It consists of unweathered rocks.
Importance of soil profile:
1. It helps to determine the level of soil fertility.
2. It determines the types of crop to be grown in a particular area.
3. The level of parent material determines the type of mineral salt available to plants.
4. It determines the level of drainage and irrigation of the soil.
5. It determines easy penetration of roots of crops.
General evaluation:
1. Explain briefly the processes of formation of:
(i) Igneous rocks. (ii) Sedimentary . (iii) Metamorphic rocks. (b) Give 3 examples of each.
2. Discuss briefly five factors which affect soil formation.
3. Discuss the role of climate in soil formation .(b) explain briefly four types of chemical weathering.
4. What is “ soil profile”? Give two example of places it could be found. (a) State in detail the effect of humus on either sandy or clay soils. (c) Why is it important that soil profile should be studied?
5. Write an essay on soil organisms and their role in soil formation and fertility.
Objective questions:
1. The physical components of the soil are derived mainly from the (a) subsoil (b) topsoil (c) dead organic materials. (d) marbles (e) rocks.
2. All of these are factors of soil formation except (a) rain (b) day length (c) soil organisms (d) erosion (e) temperature.
A mineral element which combines with oxygen and causes rocks to disintegrate is (a) copper (b)ferrous iron (c) ferric iron (d) calcium (e) silicon.
3. An organism which is not regarded as helpful during soil formation process is (a) earthworm (b) termite (c) rat (d) snail (e) moses
4. What part of soil profile exerts a significant influence on the properties of the soil? (a) B- horizon (b) horizon A (c) horizon –C (d) horizon D. (e) horizons A and B.
5. Which soil fraction first settled down at the bottom(a) organic material (b) sand (c) silt (d) clay (e) colloids.
Weekend assignment:write short note on the following : (1) horizon-A, B, C and D.
2. Describe briefly six ways in which soil organisms aid the formation of soil.
3.Define weathering state two types of weathering.
4. A vertical section was made through a piece of virgin land by means of a labeled diagram, illustrate what would be observed from the vertical section (ii) What is the name given to the diagram in (4i)?
Pre-reading assignment: Read about the types of soil ,composition and properties of soil.
Weekend activity: Read from pages 63-69 of Evans Agricultural Science for more information and attempt all the revision questions on pages 70-71.
Reference texts: Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor
2.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 by M.O.Adeniji e tal.
3. Prescribed Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by S.A.Omoruyie tal.
4. Melrose Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools1 by B O Ahimolowo e tal.
CONTENT:
1. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
2. PROCESS ES OF SOIL FORMATION
3. SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction: soil is very important factor for agricultural activity and survival of man. Soil is the loose weathered materials covering the surface of the earth, which supports life. It can also be defined as the outer mantle of the earth that formed from mixture of minerals and decaying organic matter which extends from the surface down to the limit of biological forces.
Sub topic 1:
Factors of soil formation:
The transformation of rocks into soil is referred to as soil formation.The first stage in the process of soil formation is the weathering of rocks which involves the breaking of rocks into smaller particles and eventually into individual minerals that the rock is composed of. Weathering of rock can either be physical such a through water, wind, Pressure, ice and temperature, or chemical which involves changes in the chemical composition of the rock.There are a number of factors that influence the rate, type and quality of soil formed in a location.
F ACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
There are five factors that determine or influence soil formation, namely:
1.Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Living organisms
5. Time
Parent material: The type of materials, that is structure, texture, and mineral composition present in the parent rock will also determine the type of soil formed Parent materials are important in the following ways:
1. Determining the properties of the soil e.g coarse, grain soils are formed from granite or gneiss
2. Coarse parent materials form coarse-textured and well-drained soils.
3. Rocks containing calcite, feldspar will produce deep heavy soils like clayey soils.
4. Quartz, Hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils.
5. Shale andlimestone parent materials yield soils that are fine-textured, poorly drained and with high mineral content.
Climate:- This the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time.
Climatic factors include the following:
i. Rainfall
ii. Temperature
iii. Wind
iv. Relative humidity
v. Pressure
Rainfall: Helps in the dissolution of chemicals from the parent materials and also in transporting broken down materials.
Temperature: Effect of temperature leads to expansion and contraction of rocks. Rock mineral with low expansively will break away to form soil.Also rock holes may retain water which freezes up at night and melts during the day, leading to disintegration of rocks.
Wind: wind can carry materials which collide with rock surfaces leading to breaking of rocks into tiny particles.
Relative humidity: This can supply moisture thereby encouraging the breaking of rocks particles into soil.
Pressure: This can lead to the breaking of large rock particles into tiny soil particles.
TOPOGRAPHY:
Relief or topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as hills, valleys or flat land. It may also mean the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the
earth surface. The effect may include the following:
1.The shape of the land affect s the movement and amount of water in the soil.
2.Hilly and sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation. A flat land exposes the surface to equal environmental factors and therefore delays soil formation.
LIVING ORGANISMS:
This refers to the activities of plants, microbes, rodents, man. Their effects will help to encourage soil formation in the following ways ;
Animals such as rodents, earthworms, termite, etc burrow into the rocks , and living the holes or cracks in therocks,they exert pressures which break off fragments of rock.
The activities of man during farm operation and construction contribute to the breaking down of rocks into smaller particles especially when ploughing machines are employed.
The root of higher plants exert prying effect on rock to cause break down Also plan’s root exude certain substances which may cause dissolution of rock minerals, hence resulting in soil formation.
TIME: This constitute an important factor to soil formation, the breaking down of rocks and decomposition of organic materials takes some time, the time may be short or long. Time determine the age of the soil, that is, a young or an old soil. Young soils have poor water-holding capacity, mineral content and life sustenance. Oil soil are rich in everything because all the factors of like climate, parent material, topography and living organisms take time to register the effects on the soil formed. Also it takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.
Evaluation: 1. List and discuss four factors that affect formation of soil.
Sub topic 2: Processes of soil formation:
This refers to all the activities that will lead to the weathering of rocks. Weathering of rocks is the disintegration of rocks into tiny particles to form soil. Weathering is a complex series of changes or processes which take place in transformation of rocks and their constituent minerals into soil. The changes or process of formation include the following:
Physical process
Biological process
Chemical process
Physical processes: Are mostly climatic factors like temperature, running water ,ice, wind and pressure.
Temperature- temperature changes bring s about different expansion and contractions of minerals thus creating stress in the rocks, leading to the eventual break down of the rocks.
Running water- Carries small rock particles (stone) and pebbles which collide and get broken into smaller particles. Through the erosional forces by the running water portions of rock could be cut off and crushed which later form soil minerals.
Ice- ice is an important agent of weathering in temperate regions, extremely low temperatures brings about frozen of water which is collected in the cervices of rock. The increase volume of the ice exerts considerable pressure on its surrounding leading to the breakdown of the rock.
Wind- Wind is important in arid regions and in tropical areas, especially during the dry weather. Wind is air in motion .In the tropical areas especially during the dry weather, wind can be laden with sand particles and dunes which result in abrasive forces and expose massive rock thereby resulting in disintegration.
Biological processes: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the breaking down of rocks to form soil. Plant roots penetrate mineral rock cervices which crack and cause physical splitting of the rocks and minerals Animals help in weathering by burrowing into the rock. Human beings also help through cultivation and ploughing.
Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering is the reaction of rock minerals with water. The processes include hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis- Is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule are used to replace the metallic elements in a rock mineral. This is otherwise known as the reaction of water with rock minerals catalyzed by hydrogen to form a strong alkaline disintegrates the rock
KAlSi₃O₈ + H2O HAlsi3O8 +KOH
Hydration: This the regid attachment of water molecules to a rock mineral e.g the changing of haematite ( red) to limonite(yellow). The newly formed rock will disintegrate due to instability.
Fe2O3+ 3H2O ___________ Fe2O3. 3H2O
Red (haematite) yellow (limonite)
Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock minerals or salts) to form solution. The substances formed will be carried away and deposited elsewhere to form soil.
Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with water molecules to form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks.
e.g 1.Carbondioxide reacts with water to form weak trioxocarbonate iv acid.
CO2 +H2O _____ H2CO3
E.g 2 Sulphurdioxide reacts water to form weak trioxosulphate iv acid.
SO2 + H2O ______ H2CO3.
oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen from a rock mineral or the process of electron loss. During weathering ,the most significant e.g of oxidation is the conversion of iron ii to iron iii. Rock minerals
-Siderite is changed to haematite.
Reduction: This simply means the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of oxygen from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.
Evaluation: 1.what is rock weathering? (b) state two factors of agricultural importance of weathering. 2.Mention five factors of soil formation and any four.
Subtopic 3: Soil profile development: Refers to the vertical cross of the soil from the surface into the underlying weathered materials. There are four(4) distinct layers or horizons or stratas.
The top soil is referred as A- horizon while the sub soil is B-horizon. Parent material is C-horizon and the bed rock is D-horizon.
A—Horizon: This consists of two layers:
The organic matter layer and top soil. The organic matter layer contains dead plan and animal materials, decayed, decaying organic matter (Humus). This is usually dark in colour. The top soil is the upper layer of the soil immediately after organic matter layer. It contains bacteria, worms and fungi .It is rich in soil nutrients.
B_Horizon: The B- Horizon is the sub soil. It is greyish or brownish in colour. The sub soil can be divided into two layers based on its colour. The upper layer is dark in colour and contains coarse sandy loam, fibrous branches, taproots, bacteria, fungi, worms, termites. The second layer is yellowish in colour. It contains sandy loam, little of humus, taproots and is the richest part of the sub soil.
C--- Horizon: The horizon – c or parent materials layer is reddish orange, gravelly and contains sandy clay soils. The clay content is very high and taproots can be seen here occasionally.
D--- Horizon: This is the bed rock, and an area in which rocks had not been transformed .It consists of unweathered rocks.
Importance of soil profile:
1. It helps to determine the level of soil fertility.
2. It determines the types of crop to be grown in a particular area.
3. The level of parent material determines the type of mineral salt available to plants.
4. It determines the level of drainage and irrigation of the soil.
5. It determines easy penetration of roots of crops.
General evaluation:
1. Explain briefly the processes of formation of:
(i) Igneous rocks. (ii) Sedimentary . (iii) Metamorphic rocks. (b) Give 3 examples of each.
2. Discuss briefly five factors which affect soil formation.
3. Discuss the role of climate in soil formation .(b) explain briefly four types of chemical weathering.
4. What is “ soil profile”? Give two example of places it could be found. (a) State in detail the effect of humus on either sandy or clay soils. (c) Why is it important that soil profile should be studied?
5. Write an essay on soil organisms and their role in soil formation and fertility.
Objective questions:
1. The physical components of the soil are derived mainly from the (a) subsoil (b) topsoil (c) dead organic materials. (d) marbles (e) rocks.
2. All of these are factors of soil formation except (a) rain (b) day length (c) soil organisms (d) erosion (e) temperature.
A mineral element which combines with oxygen and causes rocks to disintegrate is (a) copper (b)ferrous iron (c) ferric iron (d) calcium (e) silicon.
3. An organism which is not regarded as helpful during soil formation process is (a) earthworm (b) termite (c) rat (d) snail (e) moses
4. What part of soil profile exerts a significant influence on the properties of the soil? (a) B- horizon (b) horizon A (c) horizon –C (d) horizon D. (e) horizons A and B.
5. Which soil fraction first settled down at the bottom(a) organic material (b) sand (c) silt (d) clay (e) colloids.
Weekend assignment:write short note on the following : (1) horizon-A, B, C and D.
2. Describe briefly six ways in which soil organisms aid the formation of soil.
3.Define weathering state two types of weathering.
4. A vertical section was made through a piece of virgin land by means of a labeled diagram, illustrate what would be observed from the vertical section (ii) What is the name given to the diagram in (4i)?
Pre-reading assignment: Read about the types of soil ,composition and properties of soil.
Weekend activity: Read from pages 63-69 of Evans Agricultural Science for more information and attempt all the revision questions on pages 70-71.
Reference texts: Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor
2.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 by M.O.Adeniji e tal.
3. Prescribed Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by S.A.Omoruyie tal.
4. Melrose Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools1 by B O Ahimolowo e tal.
WEEK 7
TOPIC: TYPES, COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL
CONTENT:
1. Types of soil
2. Soil composition (chemical and biological composition)
3. Soil pH
4. Soil properties- physical properties of soil (texture, structure)
CONTENT
1. Types of soil or soil types
2. Soil composition
3. Soil properties.
SUB TOPIC: Soil types or Types of soil
Soil is the loose weathered material covering the earth surface which supports the growth
Of plants and sustains human and animal life.
Soil consists of mineral materials e.g sand, clay, silt and gravel, organic materials which are made of plants and animals, H2O, air and living organisms
Types of Soil
There are three types of soil formed as a result of the breakdown of rocks that is weathering. They are as follows:
1. Clay Soil: Is a soil type which clay particles are much more than the other soil particles or a soil is known as clay soil if the clay content is above 90% and it possess the following characteristics.
PROPERTIES OF CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY SOIL
1. The relative range in diameter is 0.002mm
2. It is fine grained
3. It is plastic in nature
4. It is sticky when wet
5. It has tiny pore spaces
6. It is poorly drained and aerated
7. It has high water retention capacity
8. It can easily form ribbons or cast when moulded
9. Capillarity is very high
10. When dry, it is hard and cracks thereby leading to deep crevices in the dry season.
11. It is alkaline and there is high proportion of mineral ions in the colloidal clay forms.
12. It supports water – logging and erosion
13. It is heavy, hence it is difficult to cultivate.
14. The colour is usually light brown
15. Percolation is low.
16. The particles are tightly bound together with little pore spaces.
17. It is usually fertile and good for agriculture
18. It has good chemical properties but bad physical properties.
19. It has electrical charges which help to attract large number of mineral ions.
WAYS OR METHODS OF IMPROVING CLAY SOIL:
i. Addition of organic manure
ii. Addition of lime to reduce the acidity in the soil
iii. Proper and adequate drainage
SANDY SOIL: These are loose soils which consist of coarse grain particles. It is a type of soil which sand particles are much more than the other soil particles.
CHARACTERISTIC OR PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL
1. The soil particles are large, coarse, grained and gritty when touched.
2. It is well aerated with loose, large pores or air spaces.
3. It possess low water holding capacity
4. The water rise by capillary is very low.
5. When wet it is not sticky and hence cannot be moulded into shapes
6. It does not support water-logging and erosion
7. Farmers can easily work on them i.e it can be tilled
8. Leaching is high
9. Low plant nutrient
10. Highly acidic
11. It is usually white in colour
12. High percolation
13. Micro-organism are discharged because of heat
14. It has poor chemical properties by good physical properties.
15. It is neither suitable for growing tree crops nor for most food crops but it is used for pasture crops and vegetable.
16. It is made up of quartz, that is S1O2
17. The range in diameter is between 2.00m and 0.02mm
METHODS OF IMPROVING SANDY SOIL
1. By mulching
2. Planting cover crops
3. Application of compost manure
4. Application of farm yard manure
5. Avoidance of bush burning
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SANDY SOIL
1. Sandy Soil: Is very important in building construction when mixed cement for block moulding, plastering and concreting.
2. Varieties of crops such as cowpea, cotton groundnut, cassava, can be cultivated on it.
Loamy Soil: This is a mixture of sand and clay particles with a higher proportion of organic matter (humus). It is also known as an artificial soil.
Properties or Characteristics of Loamy Soil
1. It is an all round soil
2. It is rich in plant nutrients.
3. It has the drainage of sand and loose particles.
4. It can withstand moderate periods of drought
5. It contains decayed organic matter or humus
6. It is alkaline in nature.
7. It is well aerated
8. Loams are easily worked or cultivated in both dry and wet forms
9. The lumps fall apart easily and so they are friable.
10. They are classified as heavy, light or medium according to the proportion of clay.
11. Has high water-holding capacity.
12. Percolation is low and capillarity is high
13. It is dark in colour
14. It has a good combination of silt, clay and sand fraction.
15. It is the best soil for Agriculture.
16. Humus is not a soil but the decaying matter in the soil. It is usually black or dark brown in colour, moderately smooth when touched. It helps in binding the soil particles together. It is also helps in increasing the soil nutrients.
EVALUATION
(I) List and explain the three types of soil
(II) State 5 properties of each types of soil mentioned in (i) above
SOIL COMPOSITION
SUB TOPIC 2: (CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL)
Plant foods are the nutrients or mineral elements that a plant requires for growth, maintenance and development. Plants nutrients are divided into two groups:
1. Macro nutrients
2. Micro nutrients.
MACRO NUTRIENTS: These are the mineral salts required in large amount and their deficiency can easily manifest on plants. They include Nitrogen potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. They are also known as major elements.
MICRO NUTRIENTS OR MINOR OR TRACE ELEMENTS: They are the mineral salts required in small quantity, and their deficiency does not easily manifest but can manifest on the animals feeding on such plants.
Micro nutrients are also known as trace elements or minor elements. They include carbon, iron, manganese, molybdenum, boron, zinc, cobalt, copper and chlorine.
Oxygen and hydrogen can also be grouped as minor elements.
NB: Iron is a traced element in plants but of major elements in animals.
SOIL WATER: This constitutes about 25% of the soil. It is the amount of water present in the soil and available to plants.
Source of soil water are ground water rainfall and irrigation.
TYPES OF SOIL WATER
These are three types of soil water
i. Gravitational: The excess water subtended by gravity on soil surface. This water is not available to plants. It is often pulled down beyond the reach of roots. It helps to prevent water logging in soil.
ii. Capillary water: This is the form of water which rises above the water table in the soil. It can be held by surface tension in the pores. This water can rise to the root zone of plants especially in clay soils of the soil. The finer the pores, the greater the force binding the water and higher the rise of water. This form of water is easily available to plants.
iii. Hygroscopic water: This is the form of water which is absorbed on the surface of soil particles from atmospheric water vapour. It is only available for plant for a short time before it vapourizes. It can easily get loss when the soil is oven dried at about 1050C. This water is not available to the plants for their growth.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SOIL WATER:
1. Field capacity: Type of water left in the soil after evaporation and drainage have occurred. The soil will be wet and water left is still available to plant for use.
2. Water table: Is the reservoir of water that is slightly below the reach of the largest tap root and above the parent materials. The higher the water table, the higher the amount of water available to plants.
3. Surface tension: Is a force which holds water molecules in the soil. The cohesion force holds water molecules together thereby preventing water from falling after rising while adhesion attaches water molecules to soil particles, and makes water to be available at a particular point in the soil.
4. Water log: This is when water is too much in a soil covering the whole soil surface. The excess water can be removed by drainage.
5. Wilting point: Is the point at which the soil has lost so much water or has been lacking water for a very long time that it cannot absorb water again when eventually supplied.
Importance of soil water to crops
1. Helps in the absorption of mineral salts
2. Helps in the transportation of nutrients to other parts of the plants.
3. It is needed as a raw material during photosynthesis.
4. For hydrolysis of food substances like starch, proteins, fats and oil which are later transported to other parts of the plants.
5. It is a constituent of plant protoplasm
6. Essential for plant growth
7. Helps in the coding of crops
8. Helps to maintain plant turgor / turgidity
9. Essential for enzymes to work very well in plants.
10. It neutralizes the effect of temperature.
11. Promotes the activities of micro-organisms.
SOIL LIVING ORGANISM: This includes the living organism in the soil. The soil consists of both plants and animals. Some of them are beneficial while others are harmful.
Soil living organisms are divided into two groups:
i. Macro – organisms
ii. Micro – organism
MACRO – ORGANISMS: They are higher organism living in the soil which are readily visible. Examples include Earthworms, worms, millipedes, centipedes, insects, snails and rodents.
MICRO – ORGANISMS: They are small soil living organisms. Examples are bacteria, fungi, and algae
EFFECTS / IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANISM
(i) Soil organisms are involved in the decomposition of dead organic matter in the soil.
(ii) They include micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae.
(iii) They help in burrowing, which lead to good soil aeration and water movement.
(iv) They help in influencing chemical changes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
(v) They help in improving the structure of the soil
(vi) When the soil organisms die, they add nutrients to the soil. The decayed ordecaying bodies of both plants and animals are also known as humus.
(vii) Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarium found in the root nodules of legumes like beans, groundnut, help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen to the soil.
(viii) Some soil micro-organisms produce acidic materials which are essential in rock weathering.
(ix) Some soil organisms can be harmful or detrimental, causing diseases to animals, plants and man.
(x) Soil organisms are affected by erosion, burring and fertilizer application.
(xi) They help in the process of weathering.
SOIL AIR: This is the amount of gases found inside the soil. It is essential for respiration of soil micro-organisms. The amount of air is inversely proportional to the amount of water in the soil, that is; its amount depends on the size of the soil particles and the amount of soil water. It is about 25% by composition.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL AIR
1. Soil air provides a medium of gaseous exchange for soil living organisms.
2. It is essential for the process of germination to take place in the soil.
3. It prevents certain plant diseases caused by anaerobic organismse.g damping off.
4. It provides a medium of transpiration for plant roots.
5. It helps in absorption of plant nutrients.
6. Essential for root development
7. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide react with water to form weak acids which aid weathering of rocks.
SOIL pH: The (Pondus de Hydronum) is defined as the measure of hydrogen and hydroxyl ion concentration in the soil. They determine the acidity, alkalinity and neutrality of the soil. The hydrogen concentration is also known as the acidity of the soil alkalinity of the soil. This is a chemical factor
Determination of Soil pH
This is the process of testing the pH of the soil.
The following methods are used:
i. Use of litmus papers
ii. The use of BDH universal indicator
iii. Field testing using printed colour standards
iv. Determination of soil pH colouring metrically
v. The use of electrometric method
pH Scale
This is a scale which is graduated from 0 to 14, and developed to measure both the hydrogen ion concentration (acidity) and hydroxyl ion concentration (alkalinity) of the soil.
pH scale analysis - is as follows:
pH2 = strongly acidic
pH6 = slightly or weakly acidic
pH7 = neutral
pH8 = slightly alkaline or weakly alkaline
pH13 = strongly alkaline
pH 5.5 – pH 7.5 = best pH for plant and soil organisms
NB:
Causes of Soil Acidity
1. Application of fertilizers like Ammonium tetraoxo sulphatevi (CNH4)2 SO4), and Ammonium trioxo-nitare v (NH4NO3)
2. Acid rain especially in petroleum exploring areas.
3. Presence of sulphur in the soil – sulphur undergoes oxidation and distribution to form weak acid in the soil.
4. Through leaching of the soil.
5. Nutrient uptake by plants which are later harvested.
6. Presence of sulphur, which alone can reduce the pH to about 2 which makes the soil to be highly acidic.
Control of soil acidity
1. Application of line e.g limestone, slaked lime, quick lime
2. Application of wood ash.
3. Application of manures like compost, green and farm yard manures.
4. Application of bone meal.
Importance of liming
1. It neutralizes soil acidity
2. It improves soil structure
3. It releases calcium ions to plants.
4. It increase the rate of water percolation.
5. It reduces the toxicity of dissolved copper and manganese in the soil.
6. It increases the activities of soil micro-organisms.
EVALUATION
1.State five importance in each of the following soil compositions: (i) Soil water (ii) soil air (iii) soil pH.
SUB TOPIC 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
a.Soil Textile
This refers to the relative proportion of various sizes and groups of individual soil grains in a mass of soil. It is the degree of fineness or coarseness of soil as determined by the size and distribution of the primary particles. It may also mean the relative proportions of different sizes of mineral particles in the soil. Texture is an important physical characteristic of a soil. Water and air movement depends partly on the soil texture.
Methods of determining soil texture
1.Feeling
2.Sieve method
3.Sedimentation method
4.By moulding
Importance of Soil texture
1.It determines the degree of coarseness or fineness of a soil sample.
2.It determines the type of crops to be cultivated pr grown in a farm land.
3.It can reveal the different types of soil particles e.g sand, fine sand, coarse sand, silt and clay.
4.The proportion of the different fractions determines the type of soil. The size or fractions or texture of the various soil types are as follows:
Fractions (Size in mum)
Stone Greater than 200mm
Gravel 200 – 20mm
Fine gravel 20 – 0.2mm
Coarse sand 2 – 0.2mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002mm
Clay Less than 0.002mm
1. It enables the farmer to determine the level of erosion in the farmland.
2. It determines the rate of percolation and leaching in the soil
3. It helps to determine the tillage practice to be adopted by the farmer.
SOIL STRUCTURE
This is the arrangement of soil particles into various aggregate sizes and shapes. It may be also defined as the physical appearance of the soil according to the arrangement of the individual particles.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL STRUCTURE
1. It helps to determine the porosity of the soil
2. It helps to determine the rate of percolation
3. The level of fertility is determined or absorption of water in the soil
4. It also supports the growth of crops
5. It determines the ease with plant roots can penetrate the soil
6. It prevent water-logging.
METHODS OF PRESERVING SOIL STRUCTURE
1. Planting cover crops
2. Mulching
3. Application of manure
4. Application of lime fertilizers
5. Reducing activities of machines
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
1. Single grained structure
2. Coherent structure fig.
3. Crumb structure fig.
4. Granular structure
5. Prismatic structure
6. Plate-like structure
7. Block-like structure
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS:
Soils are classified in different ways. The type of classification adopted depends on the physical characteristics of soil such as texture, its depth, fertility or even the amount of soluble salts present.
In Nigeria soils are classified into the following classes:
1.Ferruginous Tropical Soils: These are soils with different horizons.They are found both in the southern and northern parts of Nigeria. The soils respond generally to where there is availability of phosphate and nitrogenous manure.
Examples of crops grown here are yam, maize, cassava, upland rice, oil palm, cocoa, (southern) while guinea corn, cotton, groundnut, millet, rice, sugar cane and tobacco are successively grown in the northern parts.
2.The Ferri Soils: These are generally considered as transitional soil. They have retarded profile development due to erosion. They have high organic matter contents. They are deficient in available phosphate. This soil is found in Ogoja and Benue. It supports the growth of oil palm and maize.
3.Ferratallitic Soils: These are acidic and infertile. They can be improved by sulphate of potash, super phosphate and sulohate of ammonia.
4.Eutrophic Brow soil: This type of soil is well structured and found in the B-horizon. The fraction of clay is 2:1. It is developed on volcanic cash, is common in plateau and Adamawa areas of Northern Nigeria. It is considered as young soil when compared to other types. It supports crops like Banana, Oil palm, rubber, cocoyam, plantain and elephant grass.
5.Calcimorphic Soil: It contains large quantities of relativity soluble compounds of calcium. It is rich in clay. It is badly erosion over a large area. It can be protected through adequate soil conservation.
6.Verti Soils: This type of soil contains more than 30% clay. It has a cation exchange capacity in the excess of 30mg / 100g of soil. It is found in the northern part of Nigeria precisely Maidugury and Gombe. Cottons and Sorghum are successively grown here.
EVALUATION:
1.State or list two physical properties of soil
(b)Mention five important factors of (i) soil texture (ii) soil structure.
(c)State five ways or systems of classifying soil.
2.Explain fully the terms (i) soil texture, (ii) soil structure (iii) How do they influence crop production? (b) what is soil pH? (i) At what pH range is soil said to be acidic? (ii) state three adverse effects of soil acidity with regard to soil reaction and plant growth.
3.State five properties each of the following soils: (i) sandy soil (ii) clay soil (iii) loamy soil.
4.Comment on the pH status of a sample of soil which indicates the reading pointer at (i) 5.6-7.5 (ii) 2.0 (iii) 13.0 (iv)8.0 (v) 6.0 (b) mention three factors each responsible for soil acidity and alkalinity in the soil. (c) state two corrective measures of removing alkalinity in the soil (d) list five liming materials.
5.Write short notes on the following: (i) soil macro nutrients (ii) soil micro nutrients (iii)soil air (iv) soil water.
Objectives:
1.Which of the following is the characteristic of a poorly drained soil? A. Presence of a large number of termite B. Presence of a large number of micro- organisms C. Decrease in the activity of micro- organisms D. Good soil structure E. High soil fertility.
2.The relative amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil is referred to as A. Soil structure B. Soil consistence C.Soil texture D. Soil profile E. Soil Particles.
3.The arrangement of soil particles into an aggregate is referred to as A.soil structure B. soil consistence C. soil texture D. soil pH . E. soil acidity
4.Factors of soil formation include the following except A. Parent material B. Climate C. Time D.Topography E. Soil profile.
5.What is the pH of water? A. 3 B.4 C.5 D. 6 E. 7
Weekend assignment:Readpages 72-83 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 and attempt all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about simple farm tools as the topic.
Reference texts:
1.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 by M.O Adeniji.
2.Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor.
3.Exam Focus Agricultural Science For WASSCE&SSCE by A M Daramola.
CONTENT:
1. Types of soil
2. Soil composition (chemical and biological composition)
3. Soil pH
4. Soil properties- physical properties of soil (texture, structure)
CONTENT
1. Types of soil or soil types
2. Soil composition
3. Soil properties.
SUB TOPIC: Soil types or Types of soil
Soil is the loose weathered material covering the earth surface which supports the growth
Of plants and sustains human and animal life.
Soil consists of mineral materials e.g sand, clay, silt and gravel, organic materials which are made of plants and animals, H2O, air and living organisms
Types of Soil
There are three types of soil formed as a result of the breakdown of rocks that is weathering. They are as follows:
1. Clay Soil: Is a soil type which clay particles are much more than the other soil particles or a soil is known as clay soil if the clay content is above 90% and it possess the following characteristics.
PROPERTIES OF CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY SOIL
1. The relative range in diameter is 0.002mm
2. It is fine grained
3. It is plastic in nature
4. It is sticky when wet
5. It has tiny pore spaces
6. It is poorly drained and aerated
7. It has high water retention capacity
8. It can easily form ribbons or cast when moulded
9. Capillarity is very high
10. When dry, it is hard and cracks thereby leading to deep crevices in the dry season.
11. It is alkaline and there is high proportion of mineral ions in the colloidal clay forms.
12. It supports water – logging and erosion
13. It is heavy, hence it is difficult to cultivate.
14. The colour is usually light brown
15. Percolation is low.
16. The particles are tightly bound together with little pore spaces.
17. It is usually fertile and good for agriculture
18. It has good chemical properties but bad physical properties.
19. It has electrical charges which help to attract large number of mineral ions.
WAYS OR METHODS OF IMPROVING CLAY SOIL:
i. Addition of organic manure
ii. Addition of lime to reduce the acidity in the soil
iii. Proper and adequate drainage
SANDY SOIL: These are loose soils which consist of coarse grain particles. It is a type of soil which sand particles are much more than the other soil particles.
CHARACTERISTIC OR PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL
1. The soil particles are large, coarse, grained and gritty when touched.
2. It is well aerated with loose, large pores or air spaces.
3. It possess low water holding capacity
4. The water rise by capillary is very low.
5. When wet it is not sticky and hence cannot be moulded into shapes
6. It does not support water-logging and erosion
7. Farmers can easily work on them i.e it can be tilled
8. Leaching is high
9. Low plant nutrient
10. Highly acidic
11. It is usually white in colour
12. High percolation
13. Micro-organism are discharged because of heat
14. It has poor chemical properties by good physical properties.
15. It is neither suitable for growing tree crops nor for most food crops but it is used for pasture crops and vegetable.
16. It is made up of quartz, that is S1O2
17. The range in diameter is between 2.00m and 0.02mm
METHODS OF IMPROVING SANDY SOIL
1. By mulching
2. Planting cover crops
3. Application of compost manure
4. Application of farm yard manure
5. Avoidance of bush burning
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SANDY SOIL
1. Sandy Soil: Is very important in building construction when mixed cement for block moulding, plastering and concreting.
2. Varieties of crops such as cowpea, cotton groundnut, cassava, can be cultivated on it.
Loamy Soil: This is a mixture of sand and clay particles with a higher proportion of organic matter (humus). It is also known as an artificial soil.
Properties or Characteristics of Loamy Soil
1. It is an all round soil
2. It is rich in plant nutrients.
3. It has the drainage of sand and loose particles.
4. It can withstand moderate periods of drought
5. It contains decayed organic matter or humus
6. It is alkaline in nature.
7. It is well aerated
8. Loams are easily worked or cultivated in both dry and wet forms
9. The lumps fall apart easily and so they are friable.
10. They are classified as heavy, light or medium according to the proportion of clay.
11. Has high water-holding capacity.
12. Percolation is low and capillarity is high
13. It is dark in colour
14. It has a good combination of silt, clay and sand fraction.
15. It is the best soil for Agriculture.
16. Humus is not a soil but the decaying matter in the soil. It is usually black or dark brown in colour, moderately smooth when touched. It helps in binding the soil particles together. It is also helps in increasing the soil nutrients.
EVALUATION
(I) List and explain the three types of soil
(II) State 5 properties of each types of soil mentioned in (i) above
SOIL COMPOSITION
SUB TOPIC 2: (CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL)
Plant foods are the nutrients or mineral elements that a plant requires for growth, maintenance and development. Plants nutrients are divided into two groups:
1. Macro nutrients
2. Micro nutrients.
MACRO NUTRIENTS: These are the mineral salts required in large amount and their deficiency can easily manifest on plants. They include Nitrogen potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. They are also known as major elements.
MICRO NUTRIENTS OR MINOR OR TRACE ELEMENTS: They are the mineral salts required in small quantity, and their deficiency does not easily manifest but can manifest on the animals feeding on such plants.
Micro nutrients are also known as trace elements or minor elements. They include carbon, iron, manganese, molybdenum, boron, zinc, cobalt, copper and chlorine.
Oxygen and hydrogen can also be grouped as minor elements.
NB: Iron is a traced element in plants but of major elements in animals.
SOIL WATER: This constitutes about 25% of the soil. It is the amount of water present in the soil and available to plants.
Source of soil water are ground water rainfall and irrigation.
TYPES OF SOIL WATER
These are three types of soil water
i. Gravitational: The excess water subtended by gravity on soil surface. This water is not available to plants. It is often pulled down beyond the reach of roots. It helps to prevent water logging in soil.
ii. Capillary water: This is the form of water which rises above the water table in the soil. It can be held by surface tension in the pores. This water can rise to the root zone of plants especially in clay soils of the soil. The finer the pores, the greater the force binding the water and higher the rise of water. This form of water is easily available to plants.
iii. Hygroscopic water: This is the form of water which is absorbed on the surface of soil particles from atmospheric water vapour. It is only available for plant for a short time before it vapourizes. It can easily get loss when the soil is oven dried at about 1050C. This water is not available to the plants for their growth.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SOIL WATER:
1. Field capacity: Type of water left in the soil after evaporation and drainage have occurred. The soil will be wet and water left is still available to plant for use.
2. Water table: Is the reservoir of water that is slightly below the reach of the largest tap root and above the parent materials. The higher the water table, the higher the amount of water available to plants.
3. Surface tension: Is a force which holds water molecules in the soil. The cohesion force holds water molecules together thereby preventing water from falling after rising while adhesion attaches water molecules to soil particles, and makes water to be available at a particular point in the soil.
4. Water log: This is when water is too much in a soil covering the whole soil surface. The excess water can be removed by drainage.
5. Wilting point: Is the point at which the soil has lost so much water or has been lacking water for a very long time that it cannot absorb water again when eventually supplied.
Importance of soil water to crops
1. Helps in the absorption of mineral salts
2. Helps in the transportation of nutrients to other parts of the plants.
3. It is needed as a raw material during photosynthesis.
4. For hydrolysis of food substances like starch, proteins, fats and oil which are later transported to other parts of the plants.
5. It is a constituent of plant protoplasm
6. Essential for plant growth
7. Helps in the coding of crops
8. Helps to maintain plant turgor / turgidity
9. Essential for enzymes to work very well in plants.
10. It neutralizes the effect of temperature.
11. Promotes the activities of micro-organisms.
SOIL LIVING ORGANISM: This includes the living organism in the soil. The soil consists of both plants and animals. Some of them are beneficial while others are harmful.
Soil living organisms are divided into two groups:
i. Macro – organisms
ii. Micro – organism
MACRO – ORGANISMS: They are higher organism living in the soil which are readily visible. Examples include Earthworms, worms, millipedes, centipedes, insects, snails and rodents.
MICRO – ORGANISMS: They are small soil living organisms. Examples are bacteria, fungi, and algae
EFFECTS / IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANISM
(i) Soil organisms are involved in the decomposition of dead organic matter in the soil.
(ii) They include micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae.
(iii) They help in burrowing, which lead to good soil aeration and water movement.
(iv) They help in influencing chemical changes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
(v) They help in improving the structure of the soil
(vi) When the soil organisms die, they add nutrients to the soil. The decayed ordecaying bodies of both plants and animals are also known as humus.
(vii) Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarium found in the root nodules of legumes like beans, groundnut, help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen to the soil.
(viii) Some soil micro-organisms produce acidic materials which are essential in rock weathering.
(ix) Some soil organisms can be harmful or detrimental, causing diseases to animals, plants and man.
(x) Soil organisms are affected by erosion, burring and fertilizer application.
(xi) They help in the process of weathering.
SOIL AIR: This is the amount of gases found inside the soil. It is essential for respiration of soil micro-organisms. The amount of air is inversely proportional to the amount of water in the soil, that is; its amount depends on the size of the soil particles and the amount of soil water. It is about 25% by composition.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL AIR
1. Soil air provides a medium of gaseous exchange for soil living organisms.
2. It is essential for the process of germination to take place in the soil.
3. It prevents certain plant diseases caused by anaerobic organismse.g damping off.
4. It provides a medium of transpiration for plant roots.
5. It helps in absorption of plant nutrients.
6. Essential for root development
7. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide react with water to form weak acids which aid weathering of rocks.
SOIL pH: The (Pondus de Hydronum) is defined as the measure of hydrogen and hydroxyl ion concentration in the soil. They determine the acidity, alkalinity and neutrality of the soil. The hydrogen concentration is also known as the acidity of the soil alkalinity of the soil. This is a chemical factor
Determination of Soil pH
This is the process of testing the pH of the soil.
The following methods are used:
i. Use of litmus papers
ii. The use of BDH universal indicator
iii. Field testing using printed colour standards
iv. Determination of soil pH colouring metrically
v. The use of electrometric method
pH Scale
This is a scale which is graduated from 0 to 14, and developed to measure both the hydrogen ion concentration (acidity) and hydroxyl ion concentration (alkalinity) of the soil.
pH scale analysis - is as follows:
pH2 = strongly acidic
pH6 = slightly or weakly acidic
pH7 = neutral
pH8 = slightly alkaline or weakly alkaline
pH13 = strongly alkaline
pH 5.5 – pH 7.5 = best pH for plant and soil organisms
NB:
Causes of Soil Acidity
1. Application of fertilizers like Ammonium tetraoxo sulphatevi (CNH4)2 SO4), and Ammonium trioxo-nitare v (NH4NO3)
2. Acid rain especially in petroleum exploring areas.
3. Presence of sulphur in the soil – sulphur undergoes oxidation and distribution to form weak acid in the soil.
4. Through leaching of the soil.
5. Nutrient uptake by plants which are later harvested.
6. Presence of sulphur, which alone can reduce the pH to about 2 which makes the soil to be highly acidic.
Control of soil acidity
1. Application of line e.g limestone, slaked lime, quick lime
2. Application of wood ash.
3. Application of manures like compost, green and farm yard manures.
4. Application of bone meal.
Importance of liming
1. It neutralizes soil acidity
2. It improves soil structure
3. It releases calcium ions to plants.
4. It increase the rate of water percolation.
5. It reduces the toxicity of dissolved copper and manganese in the soil.
6. It increases the activities of soil micro-organisms.
EVALUATION
1.State five importance in each of the following soil compositions: (i) Soil water (ii) soil air (iii) soil pH.
SUB TOPIC 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
a.Soil Textile
This refers to the relative proportion of various sizes and groups of individual soil grains in a mass of soil. It is the degree of fineness or coarseness of soil as determined by the size and distribution of the primary particles. It may also mean the relative proportions of different sizes of mineral particles in the soil. Texture is an important physical characteristic of a soil. Water and air movement depends partly on the soil texture.
Methods of determining soil texture
1.Feeling
2.Sieve method
3.Sedimentation method
4.By moulding
Importance of Soil texture
1.It determines the degree of coarseness or fineness of a soil sample.
2.It determines the type of crops to be cultivated pr grown in a farm land.
3.It can reveal the different types of soil particles e.g sand, fine sand, coarse sand, silt and clay.
4.The proportion of the different fractions determines the type of soil. The size or fractions or texture of the various soil types are as follows:
Fractions (Size in mum)
Stone Greater than 200mm
Gravel 200 – 20mm
Fine gravel 20 – 0.2mm
Coarse sand 2 – 0.2mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002mm
Clay Less than 0.002mm
1. It enables the farmer to determine the level of erosion in the farmland.
2. It determines the rate of percolation and leaching in the soil
3. It helps to determine the tillage practice to be adopted by the farmer.
SOIL STRUCTURE
This is the arrangement of soil particles into various aggregate sizes and shapes. It may be also defined as the physical appearance of the soil according to the arrangement of the individual particles.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL STRUCTURE
1. It helps to determine the porosity of the soil
2. It helps to determine the rate of percolation
3. The level of fertility is determined or absorption of water in the soil
4. It also supports the growth of crops
5. It determines the ease with plant roots can penetrate the soil
6. It prevent water-logging.
METHODS OF PRESERVING SOIL STRUCTURE
1. Planting cover crops
2. Mulching
3. Application of manure
4. Application of lime fertilizers
5. Reducing activities of machines
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
1. Single grained structure
2. Coherent structure fig.
3. Crumb structure fig.
4. Granular structure
5. Prismatic structure
6. Plate-like structure
7. Block-like structure
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS:
Soils are classified in different ways. The type of classification adopted depends on the physical characteristics of soil such as texture, its depth, fertility or even the amount of soluble salts present.
In Nigeria soils are classified into the following classes:
1.Ferruginous Tropical Soils: These are soils with different horizons.They are found both in the southern and northern parts of Nigeria. The soils respond generally to where there is availability of phosphate and nitrogenous manure.
Examples of crops grown here are yam, maize, cassava, upland rice, oil palm, cocoa, (southern) while guinea corn, cotton, groundnut, millet, rice, sugar cane and tobacco are successively grown in the northern parts.
2.The Ferri Soils: These are generally considered as transitional soil. They have retarded profile development due to erosion. They have high organic matter contents. They are deficient in available phosphate. This soil is found in Ogoja and Benue. It supports the growth of oil palm and maize.
3.Ferratallitic Soils: These are acidic and infertile. They can be improved by sulphate of potash, super phosphate and sulohate of ammonia.
4.Eutrophic Brow soil: This type of soil is well structured and found in the B-horizon. The fraction of clay is 2:1. It is developed on volcanic cash, is common in plateau and Adamawa areas of Northern Nigeria. It is considered as young soil when compared to other types. It supports crops like Banana, Oil palm, rubber, cocoyam, plantain and elephant grass.
5.Calcimorphic Soil: It contains large quantities of relativity soluble compounds of calcium. It is rich in clay. It is badly erosion over a large area. It can be protected through adequate soil conservation.
6.Verti Soils: This type of soil contains more than 30% clay. It has a cation exchange capacity in the excess of 30mg / 100g of soil. It is found in the northern part of Nigeria precisely Maidugury and Gombe. Cottons and Sorghum are successively grown here.
EVALUATION:
1.State or list two physical properties of soil
(b)Mention five important factors of (i) soil texture (ii) soil structure.
(c)State five ways or systems of classifying soil.
2.Explain fully the terms (i) soil texture, (ii) soil structure (iii) How do they influence crop production? (b) what is soil pH? (i) At what pH range is soil said to be acidic? (ii) state three adverse effects of soil acidity with regard to soil reaction and plant growth.
3.State five properties each of the following soils: (i) sandy soil (ii) clay soil (iii) loamy soil.
4.Comment on the pH status of a sample of soil which indicates the reading pointer at (i) 5.6-7.5 (ii) 2.0 (iii) 13.0 (iv)8.0 (v) 6.0 (b) mention three factors each responsible for soil acidity and alkalinity in the soil. (c) state two corrective measures of removing alkalinity in the soil (d) list five liming materials.
5.Write short notes on the following: (i) soil macro nutrients (ii) soil micro nutrients (iii)soil air (iv) soil water.
Objectives:
1.Which of the following is the characteristic of a poorly drained soil? A. Presence of a large number of termite B. Presence of a large number of micro- organisms C. Decrease in the activity of micro- organisms D. Good soil structure E. High soil fertility.
2.The relative amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil is referred to as A. Soil structure B. Soil consistence C.Soil texture D. Soil profile E. Soil Particles.
3.The arrangement of soil particles into an aggregate is referred to as A.soil structure B. soil consistence C. soil texture D. soil pH . E. soil acidity
4.Factors of soil formation include the following except A. Parent material B. Climate C. Time D.Topography E. Soil profile.
5.What is the pH of water? A. 3 B.4 C.5 D. 6 E. 7
Weekend assignment:Readpages 72-83 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 and attempt all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about simple farm tools as the topic.
Reference texts:
1.Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 by M.O Adeniji.
2.Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor.
3.Exam Focus Agricultural Science For WASSCE&SSCE by A M Daramola.
WEEK 8
TOPIC: SIMPLE FARM TOOLS, USES AND MAINTENANCE
CONTENT:
(i) Meaning and types of simple farm tools.
(ii) Identification and description of each of the tools and their uses.
(iii) Identification of various accessory tools and their uses
(iv) General maintenance of simple farm tools.
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and types of Simple Farm tools
Meaning of simple farm tools: as the name implies, these are simple, handy tools made up of metals and wooden handles where applicable and used mainly by peasant farmers. They are designed to help hands to apply force in farm operations. They make the work easier faster and safer.
TYPES OF FARM TOOLS: These tools can be classified into (i) farm and horticultural tools (ii) Workshop or accessory tools.
1. Farm and Horticultural Tools are those simple tools used for cultivation of arable crops, fruit, vegetable and flowers. Example include cutlasses, hoes, rakes, forks, pick axe, spades, hand trowel, shovel, secateurs, watering can, harvesting sickle, head pan, wheel barrow, axe, pruning saw, budding knife, burdizzo castrator etc.
2. Workshop or accessory tools: These are tools used in workshop to repair or maintain farm implement and farm machines. They include hammer, spanner, screw driver, pliers, nut and bolt, chisel, hack saw, file punches.
EVALUATION:
(i) Differentiate between farm tools and accessory tools. Give five examples of each.
TOPIC 2: Identification and Description of each of the farm tools:
SIMPLE FARM TOOLS
They are the tools commonly used by small farmers for simple farm operations.
A. Cutlass: It has a short wooden handle and flat metal blade. Two main types exist – one has a straight blade while the other has curved blade.
Uses
(i) Clearing of bush and farmland.
(ii) Digging holes
(iii) Transplanting of seedlings.
(iv) Planting operation
(v) Weeding
(vi) Harvesting some crops e.g yam.
(vii) Cutting sticks in the farm
(viii) Breaking and cracking of pods and shells.
B. Spade: It has a D-shaped rectangular metal blade and a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Lifting the soil from one place to another.
(ii) Turning of the soil
(iii) Digging holes
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Filling of holes in the farm
(vi) For levelling loose soils
(vii) For mixing concrete
(viii) For weeding.
C. Hoe: It has curved metal blade and wooden handle. There are two types, the West Indian hoe and West Africa hoe. The West African hoe has a short wooden handle while the West Indian hoe has a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Making of heaps
(ii) Preparing ridges
(iii) Turning of the soil
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Loosening of the soil surface
(vi) Uprooting stumps
(vii) Digging holes
(viii) Harvesting of crops like yam, cassava etc.
D. Garden Fork: Has four to eight long-pronged metal forks, with a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Turning manure during compost preparations
(ii) Loosening of the soil surface
(iii) For spreading manure.
E. Hand Trowel: It has a shot, curved metal blade with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Transplanting seedling from the nursery to the bed.
(ii) Spreading manure or mixing fertilizer with oil in the farm
(iii) Digging holes on beds.
F. Axe: It has a short heavy metal head with a sharp edge and a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Falling trees in the farm
(ii) Cutting logs.
(iii) Uprooting stumps
(iv) Splitting fire wood at home.
G. Rake: It has eight to twelve short pronged forks fitted to a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Removing rubbish from the farm.
(ii) Covering vegetable seeds beds.
(iii) Weeds are also removed from seed beds.
(iv) Levelling of soil surface.
H. Hand Fork: Has four-pronged metal forks with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) For loosening surface soil around seedlings
(ii) Transplanting from the nursery to the seed beds.
(iii) Essential for weeding seed beds.
I. Watering Can: It is made up of metal or aluminium tank with a stem covered by perforated metal sheet covering from which water is sprayed. The perforated sheet is called a rose.
Uses
(i) Supplying water to young seedlings in the seed beds and nursery
(ii) Irrigating flowers
(iii) Sprinkling of foliar fertilizers.
(iv) Spraying chemicals e.g disinfectants.
J. Shears: It works like scissors, operated with two hands and has sharp blades.
Uses
(i) Trimming hedges
(ii) Cutting of flowers to shape
(iii) For removal of dead parts or excessive branches (pruning)
(iv) For cutting long grasses.
K. Secateurs: They operate like shears but have shorter frocked blade and are operated with one hand.
Uses
(i) For pruning bushes
(ii) Cutting of side branches of shrubs
(iii) For taking hardwood cuttings.
L. Sickle: It has a round wooden handle with a sharp curved metal blade.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of cereals like maize, wheat, rice, millet etc.
(ii) Harvesting of oil palm fruits.
(iii) Cutting forages for livestock
M. Mattock: This has a cylindrical wooden handle attached to the middle of a blade made of a thick block of iron. At one end the blade is long and pointed, at the other, broad and sharp
(i) Uprooting small stumps
(ii) Use for digging .
N. Mallet: This is an entirely wooden tool, with a heavy cylindrical head and thick short wooden handle. It is not very common among farmers these days.
Uses
(i) Pushing off logs from the farm
(ii) Splitting logs.
O. Head Pan: It is bowl-like, slightly spherical with two small handles. It is made of metal
Uses
(i) Collection of harvested crops.
(ii) Mixing of fertilizers
(iii) Transporting soil in the farm
(iv) Transporting compost from the reservoir to where necessary in the farm
(v) Packing weeds and stones out of the farm.
P. Shovel: It is like a spade, but has a curved or V-shaped metal blade with a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Transferring soil from one place to another.
(ii) Harvesting and planting of crops.
(iii) Light weeding in the farm.
(iv) Excavation or digging of the soil during ridge and bed preparation.
Q. Tapping Knife: This has a short wooden handle with a slightly curved sharp metal blade.
Uses
(i) Tapping of the latex out of rubber trees.
R. Dibber: This is a long bar made up of iron metal with a broad head.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of root crops like yam, cassava, potatoes.
(ii) Planting of maize locally
(iii) Digging of the soil during staking of yams.
S. Pliers: It has an adapted mouth made up of metal, and iron handle often covered with rubber or plastic coatings.
Uses
(i) Used for gripping or holding small objects.
(ii) For bending and cutting wires.
(iii) Pulling out nails from wood.
(iv) Essential for electrical work in the farm.
T. Spanner: It is made of metal with rectangular curved end. Each end is approximated into different sizes.
Uses
(i) Used for tightening and loosening of nuts and bolts.
(ii) Used for changing of tyres in the wheel barrow and machines.
T. Screw Driver: It has a sharp pointed and narrow edge with a metal handle often covers with rubber or plastic.
Uses
(i) Used for electrical work in the farm
(ii) Turning of screws
(iii) Tightening of screws into wood or metals in the farm.
U. Wheel Barrow: This has a big deep bucket mounted on tyres. The bucket is made of metal.
Uses
(i) For transporting harvested crops.
(ii) Carrying of manure from one place to another.
(iii) For carrying tools in the farm.
X. Pick Axe or Digger: This is a tool that has a long wooden handle and metal head with double blades. One is short and narrow, the other is shaped into a small narrow axe-like blade.
Uses
(i) It is used to remove trees and roots
(ii) Digging of hand soil
(iii) It can be used for making ridges.
Sickle: The blade of this tool is curved and put or inserted into a short wooden handle. The outside is blunt while the inner one is sharp for easy cutting.
Uses
(i) In pasture, it can be used to cut grass for animals.
(ii) For harvesting fruits.
Harvesting Knife or go-to-hell: It is made up of two parts, a long wooden handle that is inserted into a small curved metal blade. It also has a short strong blade.
Uses
(i) It is used for harvesting permanent crops e.g cocoa, orange, kola, oilpalm etc.
(ii) For pruning.
File: It has a straight steel blade with a sharp cutting edge. It is about 20-30cm long with a wooden handle. Files can come in different shapes and grades according to the requirement of the job. E.g
(a) Flat file: for general use
(b) Triangular file: for saw tooth sharpening
(c) Cylindrical file: for widening holes.
Uses
(i) To sharpen the blunt blades of farm tools
(ii) It is used for smoothening of rough surface of farm implements.
EVALUATION
(i) Identify specimen A,B,C etc.
(ii) State the uses of each of the specimens.
SUB TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF VARIOUS ACCESSORY TOOLS AND THEIR USES
These accessory or workshop tools include:
(a) Hammer (b) Pliers (c) Screw drivers (d) Chisels (e) File (f) Hacksaws (g) Pinches (h) Spanners.
Accessory or Workshop Tools: These are the right tools used in workshop for various carpentry or mechanical jobs on the farm e.g files, hammers, spanners, punches, chisel, hawksaws, screw drivers etc.
(a) Hammers: These are made of heavy metal head attached to wooden handles and the reverse side of the head may be a claw. The various hammers found in the workshop are cross-pein, pin, wooden shafted claw. Hammers may be used for the following:
(i) Straightening damaged or bent components of farm implements.
(ii) For driving nails into the wooden parts of farm structures/equipment.
(iii) The pronged end is used for removing nails from wood.
(b) Pliers: These are mouthed tooth-metal instruments whose handles are fitted with rubber. They are designed for gripping or holding, cutting and bending wire. The various pliers used are engineer’s combination, slip-joint and snipe nose pliers.
(c) Screwdrivers: These consist of a long steel rod with a flattened end which can be fitted into the head of a screw. The two types of screwdrivers that can be found in a workshop are flat screwdrivers and star screwdrivers. The type of screwdrivers to be used will depend on the screw to be loosened or tightened. Their uses involve either for tightening or driving in screws, or for loosening of screws.
(d) Chisels: These have a hardened steel blade which tapers into a very sharp edge and they are used for cutting wood.
(e) Hacksaw: These consist of a frame into which a saw blade is fitted. It is used for cutting metals.
(f) Punches: The punch has a pointed end and is used with a hammer for making metal or making hole in a sheet of metal. Punches with flat end are used for knocking out pins.
(g) Spanners: These are made of a chrome or steel alloy. Spanners are used to tighten or loosen nuts and bolts of farm implements. The two common types are ring spanner and open ended spanner. Others are box spanner and the socket spanner.
EVALUATION
(a) Identify specimen K,L,M N and O.
(b) State the uses of each of the specimens identified correctly.
SUB TOPIC 4: GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF SIMPLE FRAM TOOLS.
The following maintenance practices or precautions are to be adopted in order to prolong the usefulness of the tools for a long time.
(a) Tools should be washed and cleaned after use.
(b) Sharpen the blunt cutting edges or blades.
(c) Oil grease or lubricate movable joints to reduce.
(d) Store in a dry and cool place.
(e) Handle tools with care and use for intended purposes only.
(f) Rub metal blades with grease or paint them so as to prevent rusting.
(g) Worn out parts should be replaced without delay.
(h) Tighten all bolts or nuts in the tool.
(i) Keep the wooden part away from termite and fire.
EVALUATION
(j) How do you prevent termites from attacking the tools with wooden handle?
(k) How do you prevent rusting of the metal parts of the tools?
(l) Enumerate five general maintenance practices of Agricultural tools.
GENERAL EVALUATION
Objective Tests:
1. Which of the following simple tool cannot be used for harvesting tuber crops (a) cutlass (b) Hoe (c) Rake
2. The best tool used for transplanting is? (a) Hand fork (b) axe (c) hand trowel (d) cutlass.
3. Which of the following tools is best used for harvesting cocoa and kolanut? (a) Long handled sickle (b) Pick axe (c) dibber (d) short handled sickle.
4. Which of the following tools is not used for pruning and trimming operation? (a) Secateurs (b) shears (c) pruning saw.
5. A spade is mainly used for (a) weeding (b) pruning (c) planting (d) digging.
ESSAY TEST: 1. (a) identify specimen A,B,C,D, and E (b) state one use of each (NB: specimens are A-Head pan, B-Rake C- Pick axe D- Hoe, E- Hand trowel.
2. Enumerate six ways of maintaining simple farm tools.
3. (i) identify specimen F,J,K,L and M (ii) state the use of the specimen
(NB: Specimen F is Plier; J is screwdriver, K is chisel, L is file; M is Hammer.
4. (i) Make a list of five simple tools that can be used for pruning or trimming (ii) State 2 methods of maintaining each of them.
5. (i) Enumerate five harvesting tools (ii) Mention a crop that each toll can be used to harvest. (iii) state two methods of maintaining each of the tools.
WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural science for Senior secondary schools. Book 1by M.O. Adeniji et al (page .........)
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Farm machinery and implement.
WEEK – END ACTIVITY
(a) Enumerate five parts of a tractor
(b) List five uses of tractor
(c) List five tractor coupled implement.
CONTENT:
(i) Meaning and types of simple farm tools.
(ii) Identification and description of each of the tools and their uses.
(iii) Identification of various accessory tools and their uses
(iv) General maintenance of simple farm tools.
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and types of Simple Farm tools
Meaning of simple farm tools: as the name implies, these are simple, handy tools made up of metals and wooden handles where applicable and used mainly by peasant farmers. They are designed to help hands to apply force in farm operations. They make the work easier faster and safer.
TYPES OF FARM TOOLS: These tools can be classified into (i) farm and horticultural tools (ii) Workshop or accessory tools.
1. Farm and Horticultural Tools are those simple tools used for cultivation of arable crops, fruit, vegetable and flowers. Example include cutlasses, hoes, rakes, forks, pick axe, spades, hand trowel, shovel, secateurs, watering can, harvesting sickle, head pan, wheel barrow, axe, pruning saw, budding knife, burdizzo castrator etc.
2. Workshop or accessory tools: These are tools used in workshop to repair or maintain farm implement and farm machines. They include hammer, spanner, screw driver, pliers, nut and bolt, chisel, hack saw, file punches.
EVALUATION:
(i) Differentiate between farm tools and accessory tools. Give five examples of each.
TOPIC 2: Identification and Description of each of the farm tools:
SIMPLE FARM TOOLS
They are the tools commonly used by small farmers for simple farm operations.
A. Cutlass: It has a short wooden handle and flat metal blade. Two main types exist – one has a straight blade while the other has curved blade.
Uses
(i) Clearing of bush and farmland.
(ii) Digging holes
(iii) Transplanting of seedlings.
(iv) Planting operation
(v) Weeding
(vi) Harvesting some crops e.g yam.
(vii) Cutting sticks in the farm
(viii) Breaking and cracking of pods and shells.
B. Spade: It has a D-shaped rectangular metal blade and a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Lifting the soil from one place to another.
(ii) Turning of the soil
(iii) Digging holes
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Filling of holes in the farm
(vi) For levelling loose soils
(vii) For mixing concrete
(viii) For weeding.
C. Hoe: It has curved metal blade and wooden handle. There are two types, the West Indian hoe and West Africa hoe. The West African hoe has a short wooden handle while the West Indian hoe has a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Making of heaps
(ii) Preparing ridges
(iii) Turning of the soil
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Loosening of the soil surface
(vi) Uprooting stumps
(vii) Digging holes
(viii) Harvesting of crops like yam, cassava etc.
D. Garden Fork: Has four to eight long-pronged metal forks, with a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Turning manure during compost preparations
(ii) Loosening of the soil surface
(iii) For spreading manure.
E. Hand Trowel: It has a shot, curved metal blade with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Transplanting seedling from the nursery to the bed.
(ii) Spreading manure or mixing fertilizer with oil in the farm
(iii) Digging holes on beds.
F. Axe: It has a short heavy metal head with a sharp edge and a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Falling trees in the farm
(ii) Cutting logs.
(iii) Uprooting stumps
(iv) Splitting fire wood at home.
G. Rake: It has eight to twelve short pronged forks fitted to a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Removing rubbish from the farm.
(ii) Covering vegetable seeds beds.
(iii) Weeds are also removed from seed beds.
(iv) Levelling of soil surface.
H. Hand Fork: Has four-pronged metal forks with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) For loosening surface soil around seedlings
(ii) Transplanting from the nursery to the seed beds.
(iii) Essential for weeding seed beds.
I. Watering Can: It is made up of metal or aluminium tank with a stem covered by perforated metal sheet covering from which water is sprayed. The perforated sheet is called a rose.
Uses
(i) Supplying water to young seedlings in the seed beds and nursery
(ii) Irrigating flowers
(iii) Sprinkling of foliar fertilizers.
(iv) Spraying chemicals e.g disinfectants.
J. Shears: It works like scissors, operated with two hands and has sharp blades.
Uses
(i) Trimming hedges
(ii) Cutting of flowers to shape
(iii) For removal of dead parts or excessive branches (pruning)
(iv) For cutting long grasses.
K. Secateurs: They operate like shears but have shorter frocked blade and are operated with one hand.
Uses
(i) For pruning bushes
(ii) Cutting of side branches of shrubs
(iii) For taking hardwood cuttings.
L. Sickle: It has a round wooden handle with a sharp curved metal blade.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of cereals like maize, wheat, rice, millet etc.
(ii) Harvesting of oil palm fruits.
(iii) Cutting forages for livestock
M. Mattock: This has a cylindrical wooden handle attached to the middle of a blade made of a thick block of iron. At one end the blade is long and pointed, at the other, broad and sharp
(i) Uprooting small stumps
(ii) Use for digging .
N. Mallet: This is an entirely wooden tool, with a heavy cylindrical head and thick short wooden handle. It is not very common among farmers these days.
Uses
(i) Pushing off logs from the farm
(ii) Splitting logs.
O. Head Pan: It is bowl-like, slightly spherical with two small handles. It is made of metal
Uses
(i) Collection of harvested crops.
(ii) Mixing of fertilizers
(iii) Transporting soil in the farm
(iv) Transporting compost from the reservoir to where necessary in the farm
(v) Packing weeds and stones out of the farm.
P. Shovel: It is like a spade, but has a curved or V-shaped metal blade with a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Transferring soil from one place to another.
(ii) Harvesting and planting of crops.
(iii) Light weeding in the farm.
(iv) Excavation or digging of the soil during ridge and bed preparation.
Q. Tapping Knife: This has a short wooden handle with a slightly curved sharp metal blade.
Uses
(i) Tapping of the latex out of rubber trees.
R. Dibber: This is a long bar made up of iron metal with a broad head.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of root crops like yam, cassava, potatoes.
(ii) Planting of maize locally
(iii) Digging of the soil during staking of yams.
S. Pliers: It has an adapted mouth made up of metal, and iron handle often covered with rubber or plastic coatings.
Uses
(i) Used for gripping or holding small objects.
(ii) For bending and cutting wires.
(iii) Pulling out nails from wood.
(iv) Essential for electrical work in the farm.
T. Spanner: It is made of metal with rectangular curved end. Each end is approximated into different sizes.
Uses
(i) Used for tightening and loosening of nuts and bolts.
(ii) Used for changing of tyres in the wheel barrow and machines.
T. Screw Driver: It has a sharp pointed and narrow edge with a metal handle often covers with rubber or plastic.
Uses
(i) Used for electrical work in the farm
(ii) Turning of screws
(iii) Tightening of screws into wood or metals in the farm.
U. Wheel Barrow: This has a big deep bucket mounted on tyres. The bucket is made of metal.
Uses
(i) For transporting harvested crops.
(ii) Carrying of manure from one place to another.
(iii) For carrying tools in the farm.
X. Pick Axe or Digger: This is a tool that has a long wooden handle and metal head with double blades. One is short and narrow, the other is shaped into a small narrow axe-like blade.
Uses
(i) It is used to remove trees and roots
(ii) Digging of hand soil
(iii) It can be used for making ridges.
Sickle: The blade of this tool is curved and put or inserted into a short wooden handle. The outside is blunt while the inner one is sharp for easy cutting.
Uses
(i) In pasture, it can be used to cut grass for animals.
(ii) For harvesting fruits.
Harvesting Knife or go-to-hell: It is made up of two parts, a long wooden handle that is inserted into a small curved metal blade. It also has a short strong blade.
Uses
(i) It is used for harvesting permanent crops e.g cocoa, orange, kola, oilpalm etc.
(ii) For pruning.
File: It has a straight steel blade with a sharp cutting edge. It is about 20-30cm long with a wooden handle. Files can come in different shapes and grades according to the requirement of the job. E.g
(a) Flat file: for general use
(b) Triangular file: for saw tooth sharpening
(c) Cylindrical file: for widening holes.
Uses
(i) To sharpen the blunt blades of farm tools
(ii) It is used for smoothening of rough surface of farm implements.
EVALUATION
(i) Identify specimen A,B,C etc.
(ii) State the uses of each of the specimens.
SUB TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF VARIOUS ACCESSORY TOOLS AND THEIR USES
These accessory or workshop tools include:
(a) Hammer (b) Pliers (c) Screw drivers (d) Chisels (e) File (f) Hacksaws (g) Pinches (h) Spanners.
Accessory or Workshop Tools: These are the right tools used in workshop for various carpentry or mechanical jobs on the farm e.g files, hammers, spanners, punches, chisel, hawksaws, screw drivers etc.
(a) Hammers: These are made of heavy metal head attached to wooden handles and the reverse side of the head may be a claw. The various hammers found in the workshop are cross-pein, pin, wooden shafted claw. Hammers may be used for the following:
(i) Straightening damaged or bent components of farm implements.
(ii) For driving nails into the wooden parts of farm structures/equipment.
(iii) The pronged end is used for removing nails from wood.
(b) Pliers: These are mouthed tooth-metal instruments whose handles are fitted with rubber. They are designed for gripping or holding, cutting and bending wire. The various pliers used are engineer’s combination, slip-joint and snipe nose pliers.
(c) Screwdrivers: These consist of a long steel rod with a flattened end which can be fitted into the head of a screw. The two types of screwdrivers that can be found in a workshop are flat screwdrivers and star screwdrivers. The type of screwdrivers to be used will depend on the screw to be loosened or tightened. Their uses involve either for tightening or driving in screws, or for loosening of screws.
(d) Chisels: These have a hardened steel blade which tapers into a very sharp edge and they are used for cutting wood.
(e) Hacksaw: These consist of a frame into which a saw blade is fitted. It is used for cutting metals.
(f) Punches: The punch has a pointed end and is used with a hammer for making metal or making hole in a sheet of metal. Punches with flat end are used for knocking out pins.
(g) Spanners: These are made of a chrome or steel alloy. Spanners are used to tighten or loosen nuts and bolts of farm implements. The two common types are ring spanner and open ended spanner. Others are box spanner and the socket spanner.
EVALUATION
(a) Identify specimen K,L,M N and O.
(b) State the uses of each of the specimens identified correctly.
SUB TOPIC 4: GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF SIMPLE FRAM TOOLS.
The following maintenance practices or precautions are to be adopted in order to prolong the usefulness of the tools for a long time.
(a) Tools should be washed and cleaned after use.
(b) Sharpen the blunt cutting edges or blades.
(c) Oil grease or lubricate movable joints to reduce.
(d) Store in a dry and cool place.
(e) Handle tools with care and use for intended purposes only.
(f) Rub metal blades with grease or paint them so as to prevent rusting.
(g) Worn out parts should be replaced without delay.
(h) Tighten all bolts or nuts in the tool.
(i) Keep the wooden part away from termite and fire.
EVALUATION
(j) How do you prevent termites from attacking the tools with wooden handle?
(k) How do you prevent rusting of the metal parts of the tools?
(l) Enumerate five general maintenance practices of Agricultural tools.
GENERAL EVALUATION
Objective Tests:
1. Which of the following simple tool cannot be used for harvesting tuber crops (a) cutlass (b) Hoe (c) Rake
2. The best tool used for transplanting is? (a) Hand fork (b) axe (c) hand trowel (d) cutlass.
3. Which of the following tools is best used for harvesting cocoa and kolanut? (a) Long handled sickle (b) Pick axe (c) dibber (d) short handled sickle.
4. Which of the following tools is not used for pruning and trimming operation? (a) Secateurs (b) shears (c) pruning saw.
5. A spade is mainly used for (a) weeding (b) pruning (c) planting (d) digging.
ESSAY TEST: 1. (a) identify specimen A,B,C,D, and E (b) state one use of each (NB: specimens are A-Head pan, B-Rake C- Pick axe D- Hoe, E- Hand trowel.
2. Enumerate six ways of maintaining simple farm tools.
3. (i) identify specimen F,J,K,L and M (ii) state the use of the specimen
(NB: Specimen F is Plier; J is screwdriver, K is chisel, L is file; M is Hammer.
4. (i) Make a list of five simple tools that can be used for pruning or trimming (ii) State 2 methods of maintaining each of them.
5. (i) Enumerate five harvesting tools (ii) Mention a crop that each toll can be used to harvest. (iii) state two methods of maintaining each of the tools.
WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural science for Senior secondary schools. Book 1by M.O. Adeniji et al (page .........)
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Farm machinery and implement.
WEEK – END ACTIVITY
(a) Enumerate five parts of a tractor
(b) List five uses of tractor
(c) List five tractor coupled implement.
WEEK 9
FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENT
CONTENT:
1. Farm machinery- Tractor, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryers, Incubators.
2. Tractor- coupled implements: Plough, Harrow, Ridgers, Planters, Harvesters, Sprayer.
SUB TOPIC I: FARM MACHINERY – Tractors, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryer, Incubator.
Farm machinery refers to complex machine and implement used for carrying out farming operations.
These farm machines and implement can be classified into three groups based on source and generation of power as follows:
(a) Primary Machines: These are the machines that can supply power to other machines and implement for their farming operations. An example is the Tractor.
(b) Secondary Machines: These are tractors coupled or mounted machinery or implement used for different operations. Examples are Ploughs, harrows, ridgers, planters, harvesters, and sprayers.
(c) Intermediate Machines: These are powered by a tractor, electricity, or an electric generating set. Examples include grinding machines, incubators.
Examples of this Farm Machinery are:
i. Tractor: It is a powerful multi-purpose farm machine capable of using its power to perform various farm operations. It has internal combustion engine with either two or four strokes. It transmits power through the power take-off (PTO) shaft, or by means of a moving belt connecting the tractor to another machine.
A draw bar attached to the tractor is used in coupling other farm implement to it.
Tractors are of different types:
(a) Two-wheeled tractors: - These are tractor with two wheels, used on small farms and in vegetable gardens. They are operated by a man walking behind them and used mainly for light cultivation.
(b)General – purpose tractor: - This is the most common type of tractor. It has power rating of between 30 to 60 horse powers.
(c)Heavy – wheeled tractors: - These are large tractors with rubbers tyres used for heavy work on the farm such as falling of big trees and stumping power rating.
(d)Track laying Tractors: - These tractors are sometimes called crawler or bulldozer. They differ from the wheeled tractors in that they move on tracks instead of rubber tyres. They can be used for cleaning very thick bush and falling of trees when equipped with a heavy steel blade.
USES OF A TRACTOR
i. A tractor is used to pull farm implements like ploughs, harrows, ridgers for land cultivation.
ii. It is used for transporting farm inputs such as chemicals, fertilizers, manure and farm out puts when coupled with a trailer.
iii. It can also be used to transport workers within the farm.
iv. It can be used to apply herbicides, pesticides and plant seeds.
v. It can also be used to operate a grinder thresher or pump.
vi. It can be connected to an electric motor to generate electricity.
(2) Bulldozer: this is a very powerful machine that has an internal combination engine powered in diesel oil. It has a broad steel blade in front to raise vegetation and other obstacles. It moves on track wheels.
Uses
(a) It is used for falling big trees
(b) It is used for stumping
(c) It can be used for levelling and moving of the earth on the farm.
(d) It can be used on the farm to construct fish pond.
(e) Bulldozer is used in road construction, irrigation and drainage channels.
(3) Shellers: These are equipment fabricated for removing grains from their cobs or pods at a fast rate. They can be operated manually, mechanically or with electricity. They can be spring or cylinder shape.
USES OF SHELLER
(a) They separate grains from cobs or pods.
(b) They can be used to remove hard outer covering of nuts as in groundnuts.
(c) It can be used for maize, rice, walnut, coconut and palm kennel.
Diagram of a Sheller
(4) Incubators: This is equipment used by farmers to provide necessary condition to fertilised eggs for hatching. It is electrically. The incubators may be in form of table incubators or cabinet incubators.
Components of Incubators include:
(a) Turner which turns eggs at an hour interval.
(b) Trolleys or trays for setting eggs.
(c) Thermostat for temperature regulation. The temperature is usually maintained between 37.5OC and 39.5 OC.
(d) Setter – the platform where the eggs stay from the 1st to 18th day of incubation.
(e) Hatcher – the platform where the eggs stay from the 19th to 20th day of incubation.
(f) Hygrometer to regulate humidity which is usually set at 60%.
(g) Alarms – which alert someone if there is a deviation in the temperature and to relate humidity and to indicate end of incubation.
(h) Forced – draft air circulation to bring in air, oxygen required energy.
(i) Heater to supply energy.
(5) Dryer: this an electrically operated machine used in drying agricultural products such as tobacco leaves, tanning of leather fruits and grain crops. dryers pump in hot air or heated air which absorbs the moisture in the products to be dried
(6) Milking Machine: This is equipment for milking or extracting fresh milk from the udder of dairy animals like cow nanny goats, and sheep.
DIAGRAM OF A MILKING MACHINE
EVALUATION
i. Mention five examples of farm machinery
ii. Mention four types of tractor
iii. State four uses of a tractor
iv. State four uses of bulldozer
v. List five major parts of an incubator.
SUB TOPIC 2: TRACTOR COUPLED IMPLEMENTS.
Tractor coupled implements are the implement that are usually attracted to the tractor in order to effectively carry out from operations. These include:
1. Plough: -This is a primary tillage or soil cultivation implement used in land preparation. There are two types of plough
(a) Mould board plough (b) Disc plough
Mould board plough consists of mould board share and land slide. It is used in the temperature region where the soil is free of rocks, stones and tough plant roots and where the soil is soft.
(b) Disc plough: This is made up of a beam furrow wheel. It is used in the tropics where the soil is tough and sticky and there is the presence of stones, rocks and stumps.
Diagram Of A Disc Plough
2. Harrow: This is a secondary tillage implement which is used immediately after ploughing. They are used to break soil clods into fine tilth and to drag roots and big stones out of the ground. There are different types of harrow. They include:
(a) Disc harrow: -this consists of sets of concave disc. The disc are smaller, move in row and spaced closer unlike disc plough. The most common disc are the tanderm discs in which the disc are araged in four gaps.
Disc harrow
(b) Spring tooth harrow: - This consists of rigid times which are curved and made of spring steel that absorbs shock. When the shear comes in contact with a stump this type is useful in rocky or stumpy soil.
Spring tooth harrow
(c) Spike tooth Harrow which consists of a number of staggered spikes set perpendicularly to their frame.
(d) Chain harrow comprises of a flexible chain link mat that is pulled behind the tractor. It is useful for weed collection and manure mixing.
(e) Rotating cultivation which is used to break down big sol clods after ploughing. It can also be used for weeding and dragging roots and stones out of the soil.
3. Ridger: This consists of two sets of opposed single discs mounted on a frame. Two discs in each set make two full ridges while the remaining disc makes half a ridge. There are two types:
(a) Disc ridger (b) mould board ridger
Ridger is used to make ridges. It improves soil aeration and water percolation.
DIAGRAM
4. Planters: -These are implement designed for planting of seeds. They are so designed to measure planting distance and depth. There are different types of planter. They include: (a) Broadcasting Planter (b) Drilling planter (c) Precision planter.
(a) Broadcasting Planter scatters the seed about the field randomly. It is used for planting crops like rice, guinea corn, vegetable seeds.
(b) Drilling Planter: - This put the correct number of seed into the soil at the required depth and spacing between rows.
(c) Precision Planter: -This place the correct number of seeds in a hole, taking into consideration the spacing between and within rows and the planting depth.
DIAGRAM
5. Harvesters: -These are machines used for harvesting various crops like grasses, maize, rice sorghum and soya bean.
The different types of harvesters are:
(a) Mower: - This is usually mounted on a tractor. It is designed to harvest hay and chop grasses from the lawn.
(b) Forage harvester: - This is designed for cutting grasses and chop them either to feed the animals directly or to prepare silage.
(c) Combine harvester: - This is a large machine used for harvesting and threshing of grain crops. It also helps to separate grains from chaffs. It is used for harvesting crops like maize, sorghum, rice, and wheat.
Combined harvester
(d) Corn Picker: - This is designed to cut off only the mature maize cob or ear within row.
(e) Root crop harvesters: - These are machines used for harvesting root crops like Irish Potato, sugar beet etc.
6. Sprayer: - This is a machine designed for the spraying of agro-chemicals on the farm. There are different types of sprayer: (a) Knapsack sprayer (b) Tractor-mounted sprayer (c)Helicopter mounted sprayer.
Sprayers are used to spray herbicides for controlling weeds. They are also used to spray insecticide or pesticide to eradicate pests.
They can equally be used to spray disinfectants on livestock.
EVALUATION
(1) Briefly state the uses of the following machinery on the farm (a) Incubator (b) Sheller (c) Milking machine.
(2) State four tractor coupled implement and discuss the use of the implements.
(3) State four reasons why disc plough is more commonly used than mould board plough in West Africa.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following is not tillage implement?
(a) Disc plough (b) Ridger (c) Disc harrow (d) Planter.
2. An implement farm machine used for coupling many implement is (a) Plough (b) Tractor (c) Harvester (d) Disc harrow.
3. Sprayers can be used for the following except (a) Spraying pests with pesticides (b) Application of fertilizers to soil (c) Application of water on farm lands (d) Spraying weeds with herbicides
4. Shellers are used to remove (a) Husk from grains (b) dirt from grains (c) grain from cobs (d) cobs from stalk
5. The initial function of a planter is to (a) make ridges (b) press the soil to a compact form (c) open the soil for seed (d) water the soil effectively.
ESSAY TESTS
1. State five uses of a Tractor
2. List five tractor-coupled implement and one use of each
3. State four reasons why disc plough is commonly used than mould board plough.
4. Describe the components of an incubator
5. Give five reasons why hand tools are more commonly used in agricultural production in Nigeria than tractor based implements.
WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools Book 1 by M. O Adeniji et al. (page ................)
PRE READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Maintenance and precautionary measures for farm machinery and implements
REFERENCE TEXTS:1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS Book1 by Adeniji et al, Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
CONTENT:
1. Farm machinery- Tractor, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryers, Incubators.
2. Tractor- coupled implements: Plough, Harrow, Ridgers, Planters, Harvesters, Sprayer.
SUB TOPIC I: FARM MACHINERY – Tractors, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryer, Incubator.
Farm machinery refers to complex machine and implement used for carrying out farming operations.
These farm machines and implement can be classified into three groups based on source and generation of power as follows:
(a) Primary Machines: These are the machines that can supply power to other machines and implement for their farming operations. An example is the Tractor.
(b) Secondary Machines: These are tractors coupled or mounted machinery or implement used for different operations. Examples are Ploughs, harrows, ridgers, planters, harvesters, and sprayers.
(c) Intermediate Machines: These are powered by a tractor, electricity, or an electric generating set. Examples include grinding machines, incubators.
Examples of this Farm Machinery are:
i. Tractor: It is a powerful multi-purpose farm machine capable of using its power to perform various farm operations. It has internal combustion engine with either two or four strokes. It transmits power through the power take-off (PTO) shaft, or by means of a moving belt connecting the tractor to another machine.
A draw bar attached to the tractor is used in coupling other farm implement to it.
Tractors are of different types:
(a) Two-wheeled tractors: - These are tractor with two wheels, used on small farms and in vegetable gardens. They are operated by a man walking behind them and used mainly for light cultivation.
(b)General – purpose tractor: - This is the most common type of tractor. It has power rating of between 30 to 60 horse powers.
(c)Heavy – wheeled tractors: - These are large tractors with rubbers tyres used for heavy work on the farm such as falling of big trees and stumping power rating.
(d)Track laying Tractors: - These tractors are sometimes called crawler or bulldozer. They differ from the wheeled tractors in that they move on tracks instead of rubber tyres. They can be used for cleaning very thick bush and falling of trees when equipped with a heavy steel blade.
USES OF A TRACTOR
i. A tractor is used to pull farm implements like ploughs, harrows, ridgers for land cultivation.
ii. It is used for transporting farm inputs such as chemicals, fertilizers, manure and farm out puts when coupled with a trailer.
iii. It can also be used to transport workers within the farm.
iv. It can be used to apply herbicides, pesticides and plant seeds.
v. It can also be used to operate a grinder thresher or pump.
vi. It can be connected to an electric motor to generate electricity.
(2) Bulldozer: this is a very powerful machine that has an internal combination engine powered in diesel oil. It has a broad steel blade in front to raise vegetation and other obstacles. It moves on track wheels.
Uses
(a) It is used for falling big trees
(b) It is used for stumping
(c) It can be used for levelling and moving of the earth on the farm.
(d) It can be used on the farm to construct fish pond.
(e) Bulldozer is used in road construction, irrigation and drainage channels.
(3) Shellers: These are equipment fabricated for removing grains from their cobs or pods at a fast rate. They can be operated manually, mechanically or with electricity. They can be spring or cylinder shape.
USES OF SHELLER
(a) They separate grains from cobs or pods.
(b) They can be used to remove hard outer covering of nuts as in groundnuts.
(c) It can be used for maize, rice, walnut, coconut and palm kennel.
Diagram of a Sheller
(4) Incubators: This is equipment used by farmers to provide necessary condition to fertilised eggs for hatching. It is electrically. The incubators may be in form of table incubators or cabinet incubators.
Components of Incubators include:
(a) Turner which turns eggs at an hour interval.
(b) Trolleys or trays for setting eggs.
(c) Thermostat for temperature regulation. The temperature is usually maintained between 37.5OC and 39.5 OC.
(d) Setter – the platform where the eggs stay from the 1st to 18th day of incubation.
(e) Hatcher – the platform where the eggs stay from the 19th to 20th day of incubation.
(f) Hygrometer to regulate humidity which is usually set at 60%.
(g) Alarms – which alert someone if there is a deviation in the temperature and to relate humidity and to indicate end of incubation.
(h) Forced – draft air circulation to bring in air, oxygen required energy.
(i) Heater to supply energy.
(5) Dryer: this an electrically operated machine used in drying agricultural products such as tobacco leaves, tanning of leather fruits and grain crops. dryers pump in hot air or heated air which absorbs the moisture in the products to be dried
(6) Milking Machine: This is equipment for milking or extracting fresh milk from the udder of dairy animals like cow nanny goats, and sheep.
DIAGRAM OF A MILKING MACHINE
EVALUATION
i. Mention five examples of farm machinery
ii. Mention four types of tractor
iii. State four uses of a tractor
iv. State four uses of bulldozer
v. List five major parts of an incubator.
SUB TOPIC 2: TRACTOR COUPLED IMPLEMENTS.
Tractor coupled implements are the implement that are usually attracted to the tractor in order to effectively carry out from operations. These include:
1. Plough: -This is a primary tillage or soil cultivation implement used in land preparation. There are two types of plough
(a) Mould board plough (b) Disc plough
Mould board plough consists of mould board share and land slide. It is used in the temperature region where the soil is free of rocks, stones and tough plant roots and where the soil is soft.
(b) Disc plough: This is made up of a beam furrow wheel. It is used in the tropics where the soil is tough and sticky and there is the presence of stones, rocks and stumps.
Diagram Of A Disc Plough
2. Harrow: This is a secondary tillage implement which is used immediately after ploughing. They are used to break soil clods into fine tilth and to drag roots and big stones out of the ground. There are different types of harrow. They include:
(a) Disc harrow: -this consists of sets of concave disc. The disc are smaller, move in row and spaced closer unlike disc plough. The most common disc are the tanderm discs in which the disc are araged in four gaps.
Disc harrow
(b) Spring tooth harrow: - This consists of rigid times which are curved and made of spring steel that absorbs shock. When the shear comes in contact with a stump this type is useful in rocky or stumpy soil.
Spring tooth harrow
(c) Spike tooth Harrow which consists of a number of staggered spikes set perpendicularly to their frame.
(d) Chain harrow comprises of a flexible chain link mat that is pulled behind the tractor. It is useful for weed collection and manure mixing.
(e) Rotating cultivation which is used to break down big sol clods after ploughing. It can also be used for weeding and dragging roots and stones out of the soil.
3. Ridger: This consists of two sets of opposed single discs mounted on a frame. Two discs in each set make two full ridges while the remaining disc makes half a ridge. There are two types:
(a) Disc ridger (b) mould board ridger
Ridger is used to make ridges. It improves soil aeration and water percolation.
DIAGRAM
4. Planters: -These are implement designed for planting of seeds. They are so designed to measure planting distance and depth. There are different types of planter. They include: (a) Broadcasting Planter (b) Drilling planter (c) Precision planter.
(a) Broadcasting Planter scatters the seed about the field randomly. It is used for planting crops like rice, guinea corn, vegetable seeds.
(b) Drilling Planter: - This put the correct number of seed into the soil at the required depth and spacing between rows.
(c) Precision Planter: -This place the correct number of seeds in a hole, taking into consideration the spacing between and within rows and the planting depth.
DIAGRAM
5. Harvesters: -These are machines used for harvesting various crops like grasses, maize, rice sorghum and soya bean.
The different types of harvesters are:
(a) Mower: - This is usually mounted on a tractor. It is designed to harvest hay and chop grasses from the lawn.
(b) Forage harvester: - This is designed for cutting grasses and chop them either to feed the animals directly or to prepare silage.
(c) Combine harvester: - This is a large machine used for harvesting and threshing of grain crops. It also helps to separate grains from chaffs. It is used for harvesting crops like maize, sorghum, rice, and wheat.
Combined harvester
(d) Corn Picker: - This is designed to cut off only the mature maize cob or ear within row.
(e) Root crop harvesters: - These are machines used for harvesting root crops like Irish Potato, sugar beet etc.
6. Sprayer: - This is a machine designed for the spraying of agro-chemicals on the farm. There are different types of sprayer: (a) Knapsack sprayer (b) Tractor-mounted sprayer (c)Helicopter mounted sprayer.
Sprayers are used to spray herbicides for controlling weeds. They are also used to spray insecticide or pesticide to eradicate pests.
They can equally be used to spray disinfectants on livestock.
EVALUATION
(1) Briefly state the uses of the following machinery on the farm (a) Incubator (b) Sheller (c) Milking machine.
(2) State four tractor coupled implement and discuss the use of the implements.
(3) State four reasons why disc plough is more commonly used than mould board plough in West Africa.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following is not tillage implement?
(a) Disc plough (b) Ridger (c) Disc harrow (d) Planter.
2. An implement farm machine used for coupling many implement is (a) Plough (b) Tractor (c) Harvester (d) Disc harrow.
3. Sprayers can be used for the following except (a) Spraying pests with pesticides (b) Application of fertilizers to soil (c) Application of water on farm lands (d) Spraying weeds with herbicides
4. Shellers are used to remove (a) Husk from grains (b) dirt from grains (c) grain from cobs (d) cobs from stalk
5. The initial function of a planter is to (a) make ridges (b) press the soil to a compact form (c) open the soil for seed (d) water the soil effectively.
ESSAY TESTS
1. State five uses of a Tractor
2. List five tractor-coupled implement and one use of each
3. State four reasons why disc plough is commonly used than mould board plough.
4. Describe the components of an incubator
5. Give five reasons why hand tools are more commonly used in agricultural production in Nigeria than tractor based implements.
WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools Book 1 by M. O Adeniji et al. (page ................)
PRE READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Maintenance and precautionary measures for farm machinery and implements
REFERENCE TEXTS:1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS Book1 by Adeniji et al, Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.