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SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPICS
1 Revision of Second Term Work

2 Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
a. Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization
b. Mechanized Agricultural Operations ( Farm activities involving machinery)
c. Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization

3 a. Limitation/Problems of Farm mechanization
b. Prospect of Farm Mechanization

4 Sources of Farm Power; Advantages and Disadvantages of each type

5 Classification of Crops: Based on their uses eg Cereals, Legumes, Root and tubers, Vegetable
Fruits, Beverages, Spices, Oil crops, Fibres and Latex.

6 Classification of crops: Based on their Life Cycle eg Annuals, Biennials, Perennials and Ephemirals
Based on Morphology/Structure eg monocotyledon and Dicotyledonous crops

7 &8 Husbandry of Selected Crops:(a)Botanical and Local/Common names(b) Climate and Soil
Requirement(c) Land preparation (d) Method of propagation (e) Planting date (f) Seed rate
(g) Spacing (h) Sowing depth(i) Nursery requirement (j) Cultural practices (post-planting
operations)

9 Pasture and Forage Crops
a. Meaning and uses of Pasture and Forage Crops
b.Types of Pasture: Natural and Artificial Pasture(note their characteristics)
c. Factors affecting the distribution and productivity of pasture
d. Establishment and management of pasture

10 Revision

11 Examination

REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School by O.A Iwena Tonad Publishers Ltd
4. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
CONTENT: 1. Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization
2. Mechanized Agricultural Operations
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization
SUB TOPIC 1. Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization

Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization
Farm Mechanization can be defined as the application of engineering, scientific and technological principles to agricultural production, storage and processing of farm products. Farm Mechanization means the use of modern farm inputs instead of human efforts to increase agricultural productivity and efficiency.
EVALUATION
 Define the term mechanization
 What do you understand by farm mechanization?

SUB TOPIC 2: Mechanized Agricultural Operations

Mechanized Agricultural Operations
Farm Mechanization covers almost all agricultural operations such as land preparation(ploughing, harrowing and ridging), planting, husbandry, fertilizer application, weeding, crop health, irrigation, crop harvesting, storage and processing, and animal care and management, milking, egg collection as well as processing and storage of farm animal produce.

EVALUATION
 Mention seven agricultural operations that can be mechanized
 State a machine that can be used to carried out such operations.

SUB TOPIC 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization

Advantages of Farm Mechanization
i. It reduces farm drudgery i.e it makes it easy to avoid unpleasant manual jobs
ii. It increases productivity i.e large hectares of land can be put under cultivation
iii. It facilitates timeliness of operations. Farm operations are done and completed within a short period of time
iv. Farm Mechanization encourages large scale farming
v. It reduces the cost of production and labour on the farm
vi. It improves the quality of produce through proper processing.
vii. It attracts young school leavers to take up farming as a business.
viii. Farm Mechanization helps in reclaiming waste lands.
There is reduction in the health hazard of the farmers due to manual or over-labour in the farm
ix. It enables people to become specialized in certain operations within the farm.
x. It increases farmer’s income and improves his standard of living.
xi. It increases yield/output per unit of land.
xii. t permits additional cropping each season by rapid harvesting and seedbed preparation

Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization
i. Displacement of farm workers. With the use of machines, the operations that can be done by many farm workers can now be carried out by few hands. This will make some workers to be jobless and unemployed
ii. Destruction of soil structure. The use of machines such as tractors and bulldozers result in the destruction of fragile soil structure, leading to erosion.
iii. Compaction of Soil. The use of heavy machines not only destroys the soil structure but also leads to the compaction (compression) of the soil.
iv. Environmental Pollution. The exhaust from motor-vehicles used in pulling agricultural implements and other heavy equipment for processing of farm produce constitute environmental pollution.
v. Mechanization may limit production of some crops which are easily mechanized eg cocoyam and yam.
vi. Farm machines cannot control themselves; they need human labour to control them.
vii. Mechanization accelerates the spread of pests and diseases due to contamination of machinery and equipment.
viii. Most farm machines are expensive therefore, many farmers cannot buy them.
ix. The cost of maintaining farm machines is very high. This is due to inadequate technical know-how and spare parts.
X.The use of farm machines can damage crops if not carefully and properly handled.
xi. Unstable fuel supply. The use of farm machines relies heavily on fuel and electricity
xii. Farm mechanization can lead to possible degradation of the soils or landscape.
xiii. Deforestation and Erosion. The use of machines encourages complete destruction of forest and removal of organic matter-rich-top soil.
EVALUATION
 State six advantages of farm mechanization.
 Enumerate five disadvantages of using farm machines.

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. Which of the following farm operations cannot be mechanized? (a) Weed control (b) fertilizer application (c) seed germination (d) crop processing
2. Mechanization would remain uneconomical in West Africa countries as long as (a) farms are small and scattered (b) machine are not available for farm operations (c) basic amenities are inadequate (d) land acquisition remains in the hand of farmers
3.The following are land preparation operations except (a)ploughing (b) planting (c)harrowing (d) ridging
4. Farm mechanization is the application of machines to agricultural production involving the substitution of mechanical power and equipment for (a) human equipment (b) human effort (c) animal effort (d) animal equipment
5. Which of the following is an advantage of farm mechanization? (a)many farm operations can be carried out (b) environmental pollution (c)displacement of many workers (d) soil exposure to sunlight and erosion
THEORY
1. Define the term mechanization
2. State five benefits of using farm machines
3. Enumerate six effects of using machines on the farm
4. Describe five agricultural operations that can be mechanized
5. List out seven machines that can be used to carried out agricultural operations.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools, book 1 by M.O Adeniji et al pages 120-124
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about the Problems and Prospects of farm mechanization.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
List five Limitations and five Prospects of farm mechanization
REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
CONTENT: 1. Limitation/ Problems of farm mechanization
2. Prospects of farm mechanization
SUB TOPIC 1. Limitation/Problems of Farm Mechanization
Limitation/Problems of Farm Mechanization
Factors limiting/hindering farm mechanization in Nigeria and other African countries are:
1. Small farm holdings. Most agricultural activities in Nigeria are in the hand of peasant farmers who have small hectarage of farm to work. The fragmentation of land or small parcels of farms owned by the farmers are not economical for the use of machines to practice mechanization
2. Economic factors. Most farmers are poor and cannot afford the machines. Cost of hiring machines is high as well as maintenance. There is also inadequate machinery in the country.
3. Technical Limitation. The manpower to operate and service the farm machines and equipment is not sufficiently available. Spare parts/maintenance facilities are not available while most of the machines are not adaptable to our local environment and needs.
4. Nature of vegetation and topography. The farmland in the tropics contains thick vegetation, tree stumps, many hills and valleys. These breakdown parts of machines and implements, cause obstructions and render them useless.
5. Social Problems. Many people who would have been employed on the farm are rendered jobless and constitute social problems as armed robbers.
6. Seasonality of operation. In most part of the nation, agriculture is rain fed. Thus, machines remain idle after the cropping season. This makes the acquisition uneconomical.
7. Dependence on imported machines. Nigeria depends on imported machines which are not suitable for our soils. The machines suitable for the soil types have not been developed locally.

EVALUATION
1. List five factors limiting farm mechanization in Nigeria.
2. Briefly discuss two of the factors mentioned above.

SUB TOPIC 2. Prospects of Farm Mechanization
In spite of numerous limitations and problems of farm mechanization in Nigeria, many if not all farm operations could eventually be mechanized through the cooperation of farmers themselves, and with the assistance and strong commitment of the government. To achieve full mechanization of farm operations in future, the following should be done:
1. Farmers should form cooperative societies to enable them pool their resources together to own and operate farm machines.
2. The cost of farm machines should be subsidized by the government so that farmers can afford them.
3. Farmers should be given access to loans to supplement their own capital
4. Farmers should be encouraged to carry out cooperative or communal farming so as to reduce the effect of land tenure system.
5. Simple and less expensive farm machines and implements should be developed locally.
6. The government should establish agricultural engineering schools or stations to train personnel for fabricating, servicing and repair of farm machines.
7. Farmers should be educated to accept modern systems of farming in areas of mechanization.
8. Tractor hire service. The impact of tractor hire service should extend state capitals to rural areas.
9. Private Sectors and NGOs Participation: Government should create enabling environment that can serve as incentives to attract the private sectors and N GOs into investing in agriculture.
10. For farm mechanization to be meaningful in the tropics, its introduction should be gradual, starting with crops and operations where it is economically feasible.

EVALUATION
1. State eight obstacles of farm mechanization in your country.
2. Suggest five ways to encourage farm mechanization in Nigeria.

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. The following are ways of improving farm mechanization except (a) the cost of machines should be subsidized (b) Government should establish engineering schools (c) Land tenure system should not be removed (d) Farmers should form cooperative societies
2. One of the following is not a problem of farm mechanization (a) small farm holdings (b) economic factors (c) technical limitation (d) environmental pollution
3. The following are disadvantages of farm mechanization except (a) displacement of workers (b) compaction of soil (c) nature of vegetation and topography (d) destruction of soil structure
4. The following are economic factors limiting farm mechanization except (a) most farmers are poor (b) cost of maintenance is high (c) maintenance facilities are not available (d)cost of hiring machines is high
5. The manpower to operate and service the farm machines and equipment is not sufficiently available. This is referred to as (a) economic limitation (b) technical limitation (c) social problem (d) land tenure system

THEORY
1. Describe two ways by which agricultural mechanization can be improved.
2. Discuss five ways by which farm mechanization can accelerate agricultural development in Nigeria,
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Agric Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; pages 70-74
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Sources of Farm Power
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
State seven sources of farm with two advantages each
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Sources of Farm Power
CONTENT: 1.Meaning of Farm Power
2. Sources of Farm Power, Advantages and Disadvantages
SUB TOPIC 1. Meaning of Farm Power
Power refers to energy or force that can be used to do work. It is measured in watts (w) and kilowatts (kw). It is expressed as work done over time taken. (P=force x distance )
time
Farm Power therefore can be described as any source of energy in the farm or the various sources of energy used in doing farm work.
EVALUATION
1. Define power and state its formula.
2. What do you understand by farm power?

SUB TOPIC 2. Sources of Farm Power, Advantages and Disadvantages
The common sources of Farm Power are: Human, Animal, Mechanical, Solar, Wind, Electrical, Water, Fuel and Bio gas.
1. Human Power: This refers to men as a source of energy for doing farm work. This source of power involves many people than all other sources of power. Human labour used as power in the farm may be skilled or unskilled. It can also be hired or supplied by the family labour. Human power is commonly used with traditional tools.
ADVANTAGES
a. It is a cheap source of power compared to machines
b. Man uses his intelligence to control all other sources of farm power.
c. It can be controlled.
d. It brings about least damage to the crops, animals and their products.
e. Human power is easily available
DISADVANTAGES
a. Output is very low as it can only work for few hours.
b. Man can easily get fatigued
c. Human beings can die.
d. Human beings cannot do heavy jobs such as clearing, ridging, weeding etc
e. If trained or specialized, it may be expensive.
2. Animal Power: In this case, animals are the source of power. Farm animals can be used to carry people, draw ploughs, transport loads etc. Animals such as cattle, horses, donkeys are sources of farm power.
ADVANTAGES
a. It a cheap source of power compare to machines.
b. It can be controlled.
c. Animals can perform more tedious operations on the farm
d. Animals do not get tired easily when compared with man.
e. Maintenance of animals is cheap
DISADVANTAGES
a. Animals can eat up crops in the field.
b. Diseases and pests invasion can affect their efficiency.
c. Animals may not work under heavy rain fall or heavy hot weather.
d. It cannot be used in all farm operations like harvesting and processing.
e. Animals have to be directed to perform their job because they are as intelligent as man.
3. Mechanical Power: This is the power derived from machines. It can be transmitted through an engine from the burning of fuel or electricity. In developed countries, almost every agricultural operation has been mechanized. The common sources of mechanical power are tractors, generators, water pumps, bulldozers etc. It can be used to operate ploughs, ridgers, planters, harvesters and other farm implements.
ADVANTAGES
a. It makes farm work less tedious.
b. Machines perform more works and suitable for large scale production.
c. It does not get fatigue.
d. It makes operations in the farm timely
e. It saves labour as only few persons are required to operate it.
DISADVANTAGES
a. Machines are costly to purchase.
b. It destroys soil structure.
c. It is costly to maintain.
d. Spare parts are expensive and readily available.
e. The smoke from the exhaust causes air pollution.
f. It requires trained personnel to operate.
4. Solar/Sun Power: This is farm power that uses the sun as source of energy. The radiation, light and heat reaching earth surface comes from the sun. They are usually converted into electrical energy by solar panels instill in buildings. The energy converted is used for different farming activities.
ADVANTAGES
a. It is easily available and everywhere.
b. It is free and cheap source of energy.
c. It is very useful in plants photosynthesis.
d. No special skill is needed for its use.
e. It is neat and free of pollutants
DISADVANTAGES
a. It is expensive to store.
b. Change in the atmospheric condition can affect its supply.
c. The supply can be erratic especially during the rain.
d. High intensity of sunlight can be harmful and cause excessive transpiration and evaporation,.
5. Wind Power: This is the process by which air in motion is converted into power and used on the farm. They kinetic energy of the wind is converted in to mechanical energy. Power is generated by the wind , turning the wheel and the of power produced depaends on the force of wind.
ADVANTAGES
a. It is cheap.
b. It can be converted into electricity through wind mill.
c. It can be used in winnowing of crops produce.
D. It can be used in drying of produce
DISADVANTAGES
a. It cannot store.
b. The supply is erratic, depending weather control.
c. It is expensive tom harness
d. The cost of instillation is high.
e. The power output is small,
6. Electrical Power: This is a situation where electricity is the source of energy for doing farm work. It can be generated for from various sources such as hydro-electrical stations generators. This energy is used to operate electrical motors. Electricity is used in performing several farming activities such as drying, refrigeration, feed milling, water supply etc
ADVANTAGES
a. It is easy to operate.
b. It saves labour and time.
c. It is versatile in farming operations.
d. It is very efficient.
e. It brings about increased production while it reduces production cost.
DISADVANTAGES
a. Cost of maintenance may be high.
b. It is an expensive source of energy
c. Fire outbreak may result if not properly handled.
d. It cannot be widely used in field operations.
7. Water Power: This is used where the power of water can be harnessed to operate stationary machines. The amount of power develop will depend on the volume of water, the velocity and the head (the vertical distance through which the water falls to where the water engine is situated). Water power can be derived from streams, rivers and dams. The large head of water resulting from big dams turns mighty turbine which produce power for generation of electricity. An example is the Kanji dam project
ADVANTAGES
a. It is a reliable source of power.
b. It is a cheap source when harness effectively.
c. It provides water for animals and other uses.
d. Water may be used to generate electricity.
e. It is used in transportation of products such as logs
DISADVANTAGES
a. It cannot be employed in field operations.
b. It is difficult to control and can be destructive during flooding.
c. It is expensive to harness or operate.
d. The power is irregular in some areas eg in the desert.
e. It is unreliable as supply is affected by weather.
8. Fuel Power: Energy is supplied by machines through the burning fuels. Common fuels that supply energy include petrol, diesel oil and kerosene. Others are wood and coal. The energy generated is used to move tractors, trucks, bulldozers etc. Wood and coal provide heat during burning which is employed for drying farm products etc
ADVANTAGES
a. It is efficient source of energy.
b. It saves labour and time.
c. It is not expensive.
DISADVANTAGES
a. Supply may be unreliable
b. It is dangerous if not carefully handled.
c. Exploitation can lead to environmental pollution
9. Biogas: This involves the generation and utilization of gasses arising from decomposing biological waste. In other words, it is the process of converting waste to wealth. This includes waste from pits, poultry and sometimes human waste. During anaerobic fermentation, methane gas (hydrocarbon) is produced. This gas is harvested and stored for cooking, heating, brooding chicks, milking and lightning. The technology is not yet wide spread but popular in places like China, East and Central Africa.
ADVANTAGES
a. It is a cheap source of power.
b. It converts waste to wealth.
c. Installation and maintenance is cheap.
d. t can be employed in domestic cooking.
e. It saves the cost of electricity on the farm.
DISADVANTAGES
a. It requires skill training in order to install and maintain
b. The smell and associated flies in manure are discomforting.
c. The exposure of animals to biological gasses is harmful.
d. Where leakages occur, it can cause dangerous explosion when there is a spark.
EVALUATION
1. Enumerate seven sources of farm power you know.
2. Mention two advantages each of (a) human power (b) animal power (c) mechanical power
3. State two disadvantages each of (a) wind power (b) biogas power (c) water power

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. Which of the following sources of farm power cannot be used effectively for processing farm products? (a) Animals (b) Electricity (c) Sun (d) Machines
2. The best source of farm power for weeding in nursery is (a) animal (b) sun (c) machine (d)man
3. Which of the following is the source energy used by green plants for photosynthesis? (a) electricity (b)water (c)sun (d) wind
4. The main source of power for subsistence agriculture is (a) animal (b) machine (c) electricity (d) man
5. Which of the following groups of farm equipment uses electricity as their source of power? (a) milking machine, incubator and refrigerator (b) incubator, sprayer and water pump (c) planter, milking machine and sprayer (d) harvester, planter and incubator
THEORY
1. Write short notes on the following sources of farm power (a) work animals (b) machine engine (c) water (d) sun
2 (a).List six sources of farm power (b) Explain how five of them are utilized on the farm (c) Give two disadvantages each of any four sources listed above.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS 1 by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 128-134
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS 1 by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 138-140
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
List ten classes of crops based on their uses.

REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Classification of Crops
CONTENT: 1.Meaning and Classification of Crop
2. Classification of crops based on uses

SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning of Crop
A Crop is any plant grown for specific purpose. Crops supply food, fibre, herbs and other useful materials. To properly distinguish one crop from another, agricultural scientists have come out with ways by which agricultural crops are classified. Crops are classified into three based on (a) uses (b) lifecycle (c) morphology
EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by a crop?
2. State the bases of classifying crops.

SUB TOPIC 2: Classification of crops based on uses
On the basis of what the crops are used for, they are classified as:
A. Cereal crops: These are crops that belong to Poaceae family. They are rich source of carbohydrates eg maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, oat and barley.

B. Legumes/Pulses: Legumes belong to the family Fabaceae and are rich source of proteins. They are noted for fixing atmospheric nitrogen into the soil by a bacterium known as Rhizobium leguminosarium. Examples of pulses include cowpea, soybean, pigeon pea, ground nut and bambara nut.

C. Root and Tuber Crops: These crops produce tubers under the ground either in the root or stem. They are rich source of carbohydrates eg cassava, yam, sweet potato, cocoyam and irish potato.

D. Vegetable Crops: These are grown for their edible vegetative parts such as leaves, fruits or roots which can be eaten fresh or cooked. They are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy human growth eg amaranthus, okra, egg plants, water leaf, lettuce, celosia, pumpkin, tomato etc

E. Fruit Crops: These crops have succulent fruits which are consumed fresh. They are rich source of vitamins and minerals essential for healthy human growth eg mango, pawpaw, pineapple, cashew, guava, water melon, oranges, pears and apple.

F. Beverages Crops: These crops provide fruit drink after processing eg cocoa, coffee, tea and kolanut.

G. Spices: These crops add flavor to our food eg ginger, pepper, garlic, onion, shallot etc




H. Oil Crops: These crops produce oil when processed and can be used for cooking, making soap, margarine etc. Examples are oil palm, groundnut, cotton, sheabutter, soybean, melon, sunflower etc.

I. Fibre Crops: These crops are used for making clothes, ropes and sacks eg cotton, kenaf, jute, sisal, hibiscus, kapok (silk cotton tree) and wild hemp.

J. Latex: These crops produce whitish sticky liquid called latex used for making plastics, tyres etc. Examples include para rubber, gum Arabic


EVALUATION
1. State eight classes of crops based on uses
2. Mention the two classes of crops that are essential for healthy human growth.

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. A crop which stores food in its roots is (a) onions (b) cassava (c) maize (d) sugarcane
2. The grain crops which supplies carbohydrates belong to (a) Leguminoseae (b) Fabaseae (c) Poaceae (d) Amaranthaceae
3. Which of the following classes of crops belongs to the family Fabaceae? (a) legumes (b) latex (c) vegetable (d) fibre
4. Which of the following is not a fibre crop? (a) cotton (b) jute (c) rubber (d) sisal
5. What type of vegetable crop produces hot flavouring taste? (a) onions (b) pepper (c) tomatoes (d) bitter leaf.
THEORY
1. State seven classes of crops based on their uses. Briefly explain them and give two examples in each case.
2. Define the following terms (a) Latex (b) Spices (c) Fibre
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS 1 by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 137-139
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS 1 by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 139-140
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Give two examples each of annuals, biennials, perennials and ephemeral.

REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Classification of Crops
CONTENT: 1. Classification of crops based on lifecycle
2. Classification of crops based on morphology

SUB TOPIC 1: Classification of crops based on life cycle
Lifecycle means a period from germination to harvesting. Based on these, crops are classified into four groups and these are:
a. ANNUAL CROPS: These are crops that complete their life cycle within one year eg rice, cowpea, millet, groundnut, maize etc







b. BIENNIAL CROPS: These are crops which complete their life cycle within two years eg carrot, pineapple, ginger etc








c. PERENNIAL CROPS: These are crops which complete their life cycle in more than two years eg mango, rubber, citrus, oil palm etc

d. EPHEMERAL CROPS: These are crops that complete their life cycle within a very short time (probably within three months) eg amaranthus, tomatoes, spinach, celosia etc


EVALUATION
1. Explain what you understand by term life cycle
2. State the classes of crops based on lifecycle with two examples each.

SUB TOPIC 2: Classification of crops based on Morphology
Based on their structure, crops can be classified into two groups as follows
a. Monocotyledonous Crops: These are crops that have only one seed leaf (cotyledon). Examples are rice, maize, oil palm, coconut, wheat, barley, sorghum etc


b. Dicotyledonous Crops: These are crops that have two seed leaves(cotyledons). Examples are cocoa, cowpea, groundnut, mango, citrus, soybeans etc



Differences between Monocot and Dicot plants
Monocotyledonous plant Dicotyledonous plant
1 It has one seed leaf It has two seed leaves
2 It has parallel vein It has net vein
3 Germination is hypogeal Germination is epigeal
4 It has fibrous root system It has tap root system
5 Absence of petiole Petiole is present
6 It has single erect stem without branches It has single stem with branches
7 It has narrow thin leaves It has broad leaves
8 Pollination is wind Pollination is insects

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. On the basis of structure, crops are generally classified into (a) cereal and legume (b) annuals and biennials (c) monocot and dicots (d) dicotyledons and dicots
2. The following are annual crops except (a) rice (b) ginger (c) cotton (d) yam
3. Which of the following is not classified on the basis of lifecycle? (a) Ephemerals (b) Biennials (c) Perennials (d) Cereals
4. Crops that their lifecycle completed within a short period are called (a) perennials (b) annuals (c) ephemerals (d) none of the above
5. Biennial crops usually complete their lifecycle within a period of (a) six years and above (b) less than one year (c) within two years (d) all of the above
THEORY
1. State two ways in which crops are classified on the basis of their morphology and explain them.
2. In a tabular form, state seven differences between monocots and dicots.
PRE-READING ASSIDNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS 1 by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 142-169
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
List the pre-planting, planting and pot-planting operations involve in crop husbandry.
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Husbandry of Selected Crops
CONTENT: 1. Cereal-Maize
2. Legume-Cowpea
3. Root & Tuber-Yam
SUB TOPIC 1: Maize: Zea mays
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT
Maize belongs to the family Poaceae which originated from America and has become one of the main food crops in West Africa. It is used in various forms as food by man and it’s also used as livestock feeds. It is a monocotyledonous annual plant which reaches a height of about 1m to 3m. The stem is soft and is divided into several internodes by the nodes. The leaves are long, flat with midribs and parallel veins. The plant is shallow rooted and has adventitious roots underground. Some of the adventitious root also develops at the lower internodes of the stem above the ground. These are called prop root. Maize has both the male and female flowers on the same plant. The male (tassels) are borne in the terminal pinnacle while the female flowers are borne in the combs or ears. The fruit is one seeded.









VARIETIES OF MAIZE: Some varieties of maize are: flint, floury, dent, yellow (TZRS),
White Maize (Ferz 27) and hybrid maize such as 8434-11
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Maize is propagated by seed (sexual)
CLIMATICN AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: It requires a temperature of about 10ºC and 46ºC. Annual rainfall is 750-1500mm. It requires loamy soil which is neutral or alkaline. However, maize will grow in all soil except pure sand.
LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING: The land should be cleared manually or mechanically. At times, low ridges, mounds or beds are prepared. Planting on flat soil is also good provided the place is free from erosion. In the South, it is planted in the late February to April for early maize and August for late maize. In the North, it is planted in June. However, maize can be planted anytime of the year if water is available. The depth should be 5cm deep.
PLANTING DISTANCE AND SEED RATE: Maize is planted 90 x 40 cm at 2 seeds per stand or 75 x 25 cm at 1 seed per stand. 20-25kg of seed is required per hectare planted at 2 seed per stand.
SUPPLYING/THINNING: Supplying should be done to fill un-germinated seeds while the excess germinated seeds should be thinned to two plants per stand.
MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION: Planting in freshly cleared forest soil may not require fertilizers. On a used land, apply 15:15:15 NPK at planting, then Sulphate of Ammonia four weeks after planting.
WEED CONTROL: Maize plot is weeded clean within the first five weeks of planting. Hoe or cutlass can be used on small farm while selected herbicides can be used on large farms.
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE: The maturity varies from 90 -120 days. However, some varieties mature early. The maize cobs are ready for harvesting when silks begin to dry, this is green harvesting. On the alternative, the maize plant may be allowed to dry, this is dry harvesting. Harvesting can be done by plucking the cobs with hands while combine harvester is used for large scale. The dry maize may be stored along with the husks by hanging over a fire place for heating and drying. The husk may be removed, the cobs thoroughly dried in the sun and stored in bags or cribs. The dehusked maize cobs may be shelled and the dried grains stored in bags, plastic drums or silos
PESTS OF MAIZE: The major field pests of maize are weaver birds, rodents and stem borers while the major storage pests are weevils and rats
DISEASES OF MAIZE: These include maize rust, maize steak, Corn smut, and Lead blast
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE
1. It serves as staple food for man
2. Industrial uses such as flour, starch, gums, brew etc
3. Sources of income to man
Maize grain can be eaten roasted or boiled or processed into starch or corn flour, corn flakes, pap or corn meal.
EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe the plant, maize.
2. Explain the cultivation of maize under the following headings: seed rate, planting depth, planting distance, planting date and fertilizer requirement.




SUB TOPIC 2: Cowpea: Vigna unguiculata
DESCRIPTION OF COWPEA
Cowpea is a leguminous crop commonly grows throughout Nigeria and more in the Savanna region. It is widely eaten in various forms. It supplies a cheap source of protein to human beings and animals.
VARIETIES: Popularly called beans in the market, common cowpea varieties have white or brown seeds. The stem may be erect or creeping, the leaves are trifoliate. The plant has tap root system which bears many secondary roots. They develop nodules which help the plant to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The pod is long and narrow and when dry is dehiscent.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION
Cowpea is propagated by seed.
CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: Cowpea is a warm weather crop and does well where there is high temperature. Annual rainfall is between 758-1500mm. Low rainfall with sunnier weather is needed during pod forming and ripening stage. Cowpea does well on a well drained sandy loam. Very fertile soil as well as too much rain induces excessive vegetative growth at the expense of seed production.
LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING: Cowpeas can be sown on ridges, mounds or directly on flat soil. Planting is best done between July and August in the North and September in the South. The hole should be 2-5cm deep at 2-3 seeds per stand. Spacing is 30cm between plants and 100cm between rows for the creeping types while 30cm between plants and 60cm between rows for the erect type.
MANURE/FERTILIZER APPLICATION: Cowpea will not require manure or fertilizer if the soil is fertile. However, on previously used soil farmyard manure or Superphosphate or Potash will increase yield.
WEED CONTROL: It is necessary to clean before crop establishes itself to cover the ground as this will suppress the growth of weed.
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE: Maturity depends on varieties. However, it is usually between three to four months. Harvesting is done by hand picking of matured ripe pods. Prompt harvesting is important to avoid shattering of the ripe pods. Pods may be threshed by beaten with sticks on a hard surface or a motorized thresher. Threshed seeds are winnowed and stored either in bags, rhombus, silos, earthen pots etc.
PEST OF COWPEA: These are pod borers, aphids and leaf beetle
DISEASES: These include Bacteria blight, Root rot and Leaf spot
EVALUATION
1. Why is cowpea commonly grown in the North than in the South?
2. Explain the cultivation of cowpea under climate and soil requirement.





SUB TOPIC 3: Yam: Dioscorea spp
DESCRIPTION OF YAM
Yam is believed to have originated in India and it is popularly cultivated in Southern and middle belt of Nigeria. Yam has stems which are usually twining. They have vines and some have thorns.
VARIETIES: These are
White yam: Dioscorea rotundata
Yellow yam : Dioscorea cayenensis
Water yam: Dioscorea alata
Trifoliate yam: Dioscorea domentorum
Aerial yam: Dioscorea bulbefera
Chinese yam: Dioscorea esculenta
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Yam is propagated by 1. Seed yam 2. Yam sett 3. Small whole seed.
CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: The temperature ranges from 25ºC to 30ºC. The annual rainfall is about 1000-1500mm.
LAND PREPARATION: The land is cleared and burnt. The soil should be well drained rich loamy soil to clay loamy soil. Yam should be planted on ridges, moulds or flat soil.
SPACING: 75-90cm between and within rows and should be 15cm deep
PLANTING DATE: Early planting start from November to December in riverine areas and March to early June for late planting in forest areas.
MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION: NPK 10:10:20 should be applied 8 weeks after planting. Potassium is needed during tuber formation. Organic manure may also be applied.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Mulching
2. Weeding (which should be regular)
3. Fertilizer application (as explained above)
4. Staking
5. Training of vines
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Harvesting period is between 8-12 months after planting
Harvesting is done by digging the soil gently with cutlass to remove tuber from the soil.
After harvesting the yam tubers are stored in the following ways: barn storage, burying fresh tuber in the soil and arranging tubers individually on shaded wooden shelves.
Yam tubers can be processed into yam powder or flour.
PESTS OF YAM: These include yam tuber beetle and yam shoot beetle
DISEASES OF YAM: These include yam mosaic, yam rot and yam leaf spot
EVALUATION
1. State the six varieties of yam
2. Explain the cultural practices in yam husbandry.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. What is the name of male inflorescent of maize?(a) cob (b) ear (c) tassel (d) style
2. Each of the following is a common variety of yam grown in West Africa except (a) white yam (b) water yam (c) yellow yam (d) Chinese yam
3. A cut piece of yam used for propagation is called (a) yam seed (b) yam bud (c) yam sett (d) tuber
4. Cowpea is ripe and harvested between the months of (a) November-January (b) June-August (c) May-July (d) February-April
5. Cowpea is important in crop rotation because (a) it corrects the acidity of the soil (b) the root improves soil structure (c) it adds nitrate to the soil (d) it grows fast and covers the soil rapidly
THEORY
1. Discuss the cultivation of a named cereal/legume/tuber under climate and soil requirement, land preparation and planting and harvesting, processing and storage.
2. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, describe a maize plant.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Essentials Agricultural Science for SSS by O.A Iwena pages 15-24
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Essentials Agricultural Science for SSS by O.A Iwena pages 25-35
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Write on the harvesting and processing of tomato
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essentials Agricultural Science for SSS by O.A Iwena; TONADS Publishers Ltd

TOPIC: Husbandry of Selected Crops
CONTENT: 1. Vegetable-Tomato
2. Beverages-Cocoa
3. Oil-Oil palm
SUB TOPIC 1: Tomato: Lycopersicon esculentum
DESCRIPTION
This is an annual vegetable crop grown for its fruits. The plant has a weak hairy and triangular stem which bears side branches. It has compound leaves, borne alternately on the stem and branches. Tomato bears yellow flowers; the fruit are green and turn red, pink or yellow when ripe.

VARIETIES: Cultivated varieties of tomato are Roma, Bonny best, Hot set, Ife plum, Romita and local cultivars.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Propagation is by seed planted either directly or first in nursery and later transfer to the field. The planting could be by drilling or broadcasting.
CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: Tomato is a warm season crop and does best under dry condition. Annual rainfall is 750mm. Temperature is between 20ºC to 25ºC. It does best in a rich drained loamy soil.
PLANTING DATE: Early September to October
SEED RATE: 5-10kg of seeds/ha
NURSERY PRACTICES:
It is done on ground, beds or seed boxes.
Seeds are sown in drill 5cm apart and 2.5cm deep
Shading, mulching, weeding and watering are done.
Nursery last for 3 weeks when the plants are at three leaved stage
TRANSPLANTING: Transplanting is done after the seedlings have reached about 15-20cm tall. This is about 25-30days. The plants should have attained up to 4-5 leaves stage before transplanting to the field. Planting in the field is 45-60cm between rows and 30-45cm between plants. Transplanting should done in the evening or during cool weather together with the ‘ball of earth’ to ensure survival of the seedlings.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding
2. Watering (this should be done immediately after transplanting morning and evening)
3. Fertilizer application: NPK 15:15:15 and organic manure are necessary
4. Staking: this is to enable plants stand erect and prevent lodging. It also allows for good fruiting and keep fruit from disease attack arising from contact from soil.
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Tomato matures between 2-4 months after planting (from transplanting). Harvesting is done by hand picking and it starts as from two months. For a short period, tomato can stored in a refrigerator or spread on the floor in an airy room. For a long term storage, tomatoes are turned into paste and canned
PESTS OF TOMATO
1. Cricket 2. Beetle 3. Grass hopper 4. Caterpillar
DISEASES OF TOMATO
1. Bacteria wilt 2. Leaf spot 3. Root rot 4. Blossom end 5. Root knot
EVALUATION
1. Explain why staking is important in tomato.
2. Explain the process involve in nursery practices of tomato.







SUB TOPIC 2: Cocoa-Theobroma cacao
DESCRIPTION: Cocoa originated from South America. It is a tree plant growing to a height of more than six meters. Cocoa has an upright main stem called the chupon. The leaves are long and oval arranged spirally.








VARIETIES: These are Amelonado, Amazon and Criollo,
CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: Cocoa plant requires temperature of 17ºC-21ºC. Annual rainfall 114-200cm.The best soil is a fertile well drained loamy-clayey soil which slightly acidic.
LAND PREPARATION: The land is cleared after which stumping is done.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: This is mainly by seed and vegetatively by budding and stem cutting.
PlANTING DATE: Nursery is done October to January while field planting is between April to June
SPACING: Spacing in nursery is 20cm by 20cm while in the field is 3m by 3m.
NURSERY PRACTICES:
1. Loamy soil containing organic matter are used to fill up polythene bags
2. Seeds are sown in the polythene bags (one seed per bag)
3. Shade is provided
4. Watering is done twice daily
5. Regular weeding
TRANSPLANTING: Cocoa seedlings are transplanted to the field as from April during rainy season ie 5-6 months after planting in the nursery. The seedlings are carefully removed from the polythene bags with a ball of earth and placed in a hole which is about 45cm deep. The hole is covered gently and firmly around the seedlings


CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding
2. Shading –Some crops like banana, cocoyam should be grown to provide shades
3. Fertilizer application-Urea or Sulphate of Ammonia is applied at 3000kg/ha when the plant is 8-12 weeks on the field
4. Mulching
5, Pruning-this encourages better canopy formation
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Cocoa is ready for harvest within 3-5 months. Ripen or matured cocoa pod is carefully cut off from the tree using sharp cutlass, knife or sickle.
PROCESSING: The pod is carefully opened to remove the cocoa beans by applying some force.
FERMENTATION: This can be done by using sweat box or tray method for about five days. During the fermentation process, cocoa beans undergo chemical changes brought about by the action of heat. The beans change to a red brown colour and develop the characteristic chocolate flavor. Theobromine is one of the properties of fermentation which gives cocoa its stimulating property. Other method of fermentation includes heap and basket.
DRYING: The bean seeds are now dry under the sun for six to ten days or dryer may be used.
STORAGE: Dry beans are stored in sacks or jute bags ready for export
UTILIZATION: Cocoa beans are used in making oil, cocoa butter, chocolates, cocoa wine, shoe polish and cocoa powder.
PESTS OF COCOA
1. Cocoa capsid, mealy bug and pod husk miners
DISEASES OF COCOA
1. Swollen shoot and Black pod
EVALUATION
1. State and explain all stages involved in processing cocoa beans.
2. Explain how cocoa seedlings are transplanted from nursery to the permanent site.






SUB TOPIC 3: Oil palm-Elaeis guineensis
DESCRIPTION
Oil palm belongs to the family Palmeae. The plant is indigenous to tropical West Africa and is grown on a large scale in Eastern and Edo areas of Nigeria. The plant is erect, unbranched and may a height of 10-30m. It has fibrous root system; the leaflets are long pointed at the tip. Oil palm produces both male and female flower on the palm. The fruit is oval and fibrous consisting of the epicarp as its outer covering. The fleshly mesocarp containing the oil and the nut surrounded by a hard shell or endocarp
VARIETIES: These are:
Dura: it has a thin mesocarp, thick endocarp with a large kernel
Pisifera: it has a thick mesocarp (contains little oil), absence of endocarp with small kernel
Tenera: it has a fairly thick pericarp. It is a cross between Dura and Pisifera. It is capable of producing both the oil and the kernel.
METHODS OF PROPAGATION: by seed
PLANTING DATE:
1. PRE-NURSERY: August-October
2. NURSERY: (9 months after pre-nursery)
3. FIELD: March –May (1 year after nursery)
SEED RATE: 120-150/ha
GERMINATION OF SEEDS: Seeds are soaked in water for 7 days, the water being changed daily. After 7 days, the seeds are placed in the shed to dry before bagging them in polythene bags. From here, they are sent to the germinator room which has a temperature of 39ºC and they stay here for 80 days. The next step is to soak them again for 7 days, the water being changed daily. The seeds are then dried under shade for 2 hours before being sent to the cooling house. After about 2 weeks, germination begins.
PRE-NURSERY OPERATIONS
Seed boxes/Trays are filled with top soil rich in humus
The seeds are sown at a spacing of 7cm x 7cm
Shades are provided
Watering is done in the morning and evening
Mulching should be done
Pre-nursery lasts for 4-5 months before transferring them to the nursery
NURSERY OPERATION
It requires a well drained loamy soil
Polythene bags are used
Planting is done early April during which seedlings are removed with a ball of earth
Spacing is 60 x 60cm
Watering, weeding and mulching are done.
TRANSPLANTING
It is done after one year of seedling in the nursery usually April to May.
It goes with a ball of earth on the root
Spacing is 9m x 9m in triangular form in a hole of 4.5m deep
The roots are trimmed to encourage the development of new ones
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding
2. Fertilizer application NPK 15:15:15 at the rate of 800kg/ha
3. Planting of cover crops (to prevent erosion, evaporation and to add nutrients)
4. Pruning
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Maturity is between 3-7 years. Matured bunches are harvested when the fruits are red or dark red in colour. The bunch is harvested with a cutlass or harvesting knife
Processing: Oil palm fruits can be processed in two ways
(1) Traditional method: the fruits are boiled, after which they are pounded in a mortal and oil is extracted from the residue after removing the fibres and the nuts. The crude liquid is reboiled and the oil is carefully separated. The oil is later reheated to eliminate any trace of water that remain
(2) The Modern method: this involves different stages:
a. Sterilization: the bunches are cut into 4 parts and put in drums. The drums are heated from the bottom. On a large farm, electric sterilizer may be used. This is to soften the fruits for stripping from the bunches and for milling. It also kills disease pathogens
b. Stripping: this is to remove fruits from the bunches thereafter the fruits are heated for 30-45minutes.
c. Milling/Pounding: this involves pounding the fruits to separate the mesocarp from the nuts.
d. Pressing: the liquid is pressed out from the macerated mass. Pressing can be done by using
(i) the srew hand press
(ii) hydraulic press
(iii) the centrifugal press.
At this the nuts are removed from the fibrous mass while the liquid is sent to the next stage
e. Clarification: this is the separation of pure oil from the water and the impurities. The process involves boiling and skimming. Extracted oil is graded according to FFA content. The oil with high FFA is referred to as industrial oil and is used for making soap, candle etc while the one with low FFA (4%) is used in cooking and making vegetable oil
IMPORTANCE OF OIL PALM
1. Palm oil 2. Palm kernel 3. Palm fronds 4. Palm wine 5. Stem (for construction) 6. The bunches(serves as manure and used for making foot mat)
PESTS OF OIL PALM
These are rodents, mites, red spiders, grasshopper, mealy bug, aphids and birds
DISEASE OF OIL PALM
These include Blast, Anthracnose, Galadema, Freckle, Algal spot and Brown germ
EVALUATION
1. State and explain the three varieties of oil palm
2. Explain the following under the production of oil palm (i) pre-nursery stage (ii) nursery stage (iii) transplanting stage
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. The botanical name of tomato is (a) Zea mays (b) Elaeis guineensis (c) Lycopersicon esculentum (d) Theobroma cacao
2. Mosaic disease affects (a) cotton and cocoa (b) yam and cassava (c) mango and orange (d) tomato and groundnut
3. How long do cocoa seedlings remain in the nursery before transplanting (a) 6 months (b) 12 months (c) 3 months (d) 10 days
4. Why are seedlings removed with ball of earth during transplanting? (a) to keep the seedlings in a moist condition (b) it is a part of the practice (c) to ensure that the delicate roots are protected from detrimental environmental factors (d) to prevent them from exposure to light
5. Why is pruning done in cocoa production? (a) it allows better canopy formation and encourages branch formation(b) it keeps the farm neat (c) it increases plant quality (d) it reduces rate of transpiration and evaporation.
THEORY
1.Discuss the following practices in crop production (a) transplanting (b) nursery practices (c) mulching (d) staking
2(a) Mention four stages in the processing of cocoa (b) List 3 cultural practices carried out in the production of cocoa (c) Enumerate 3 diseases that affect the production of cowpea.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; pages 87-90
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; pages 172-180
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
List 7 management practices of pasture
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

TOPIC: Pasture and Forage Crops
CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Uses of pasture and Forage crops
2. Types of pasture
3. Factors affecting distribution and productivity of pasture
4. Establishment and management of pasture
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Uses of Pasture and Forage Crops
A Pasture is an area of land on which grasses and legumes (forages) grow for animals to graze. Forage crops are plants cultivated for their vegetative portions in a pasture and are used either in fresh or preserved form for feeding livestock such as cattle, sheep and goat. They may be harvested and fed to the animals in their shed (soiling/zero grazing) or animals are allowed to graze directly on the field.


USES OF FORAGE CROPS
1. Forages account for a major source of food for ruminant animals
2. They serve as cover crops to conserve soil moisture and prevent soil erosion.
3. They could be used as green manure eg forage legumes
4. They can be used for roofing farm stead eg grasses
5. They can also be used as bedding materials for animals
6. They can fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
7. Forage legumes increase proteins content of the pasture, add to palatability as well as increasing the nitrogen content of the soil.
EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by the term pasture?
2. State five importances of forages in livestock production.

SUB TOPIC 2: Types of Pasture
There are two main types of pasture: the natural and artificial pastures
A. The Natural Pasture: The Natural Pasture otherwise known as range land is an extensive grassland containing forage grasses and legumes, straws and other wildlife. An example of Natural Pasture is Savanna areas
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL PASTURE
1. It has a good ability to regenerate
2. The soil types have low fertility
3. Some unconsumable grasses and legumes by the animals are found on such land.
4. The grasses and legumes are usually of poor quality
5.It may contains some stubborn grasses which may be difficult to eradicate.
6. The forages are seasonal being scarce during dry season
7. It harbors wild animals.
B. The Artificial Pasture: This is an established or sown pasture. The grasses and legumes are deliberately planted for livestock to feed on.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL PASTURE
1. Grasses and legumes are selectively grown in a proper proportion.
2. It is weed free
3. They contain high quality grasses and legumes.
4. They can regenerate after harvesting.
5. The pasture can withstand trampling by animals.
6. Management practices are carried out.
7. Production is high due to proper management.

COMMON GRASSES AND LEGUMES
A: GRASSES
i.Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum
ii.Guinea grass Panicum maximum
iii.Southern gamba grass Andropogon tectorum
iv.Northern gamba grass Andropogon gayanus
v.Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyn
vi.Rhode grass Chloris gayana
vii.Carpet grass Axonopus compressus
viii.Bahama grass Cynodon dactylon
ix.Spear grass Imperita cylindrical
x.Goose grass Eleusin indica

B: LEGUMES
i. Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis
ii.Tropical kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides
iii.Calop Calopogonium mucunoides
iv.Centro Centrosema pubescence
v.Mucuna Mucuna utilis

DESCRIPTION OF GRASSES AND LEGUMES

1. Guinea grass: it is a perennial plant, native to tropical countries and about 4.5m high. It is bunchy, erect, palatable, drought resistance, high foliage production and good for silage and hay making. It is propagated by seeds and stolon, it produces many seeds with low viability.

2. Elephant grass: It is a perennial plant with cane-like stem. It is native to rain forest or riverine zone of Africa. It is vigorous, aggressive, good for silage but not for direct grazing. It is palatable, highly leafy and can be propagated by seed and stolon. The height is between 3m and 5m.

3. Giant star grass: It is a perennial grass of height 1m-2m. Its native to forest zone of Africa. It is propagated by seeds and stolon, high yielding, palatable, good for silage production and respond well to fertilizer

4. Spear grass: It is a perennial plant of about 1m-1.5m tall. It is palatable, native to the Tropics. Spear grass is propagated asexually by rhizomes, difficult to eradicate because of the underground rhizomes and also produce seeds on hairy head.

5. Tropical kudzu: It is commonly called Peuro. It is trifoliate, petiolated, nodulated, hairy with white or pink flower. It is palatable, proteinous, good ground cover, drought untolerant, good for hay and silage making. It is a creeping plant that is usually planted in rubber or oil palm plantation as cover crops to prevent erosion.

6. Centro: It is trifoliate, petiolated, nodulated, hairless, palatable, shade tolerant, drought resistant, self seeding, perennial and persistent. It responds to fertilizer application, it has reddish to purple flower. It is propagated sexually and dispersed by explosive mechanism.
EVALUATION
1. State the two main types of pasture with five characteristics each.
2. Mention five grasses and legumes found in your locality

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF PASTURE

A.DISTRIBUTION
1. Climatic factors: These are rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity, sunshine etc. They affect vegetation types and places of their growth eg savanna climate favours the growth of grasses and legumes
2. Edaphic/Soil factors: They are soil Ph, texture, structure and fertility. They also influence pasture types and areas of distribution.
3. Biotic factors: These influence pasture distribution eg pests. diseases, parasites, predators etc

B. PRODUCTIVITY
1. Aggressiveness: This is an ability to compete with weeds
2. Persistence: it is an ability to survive and spread
3. Resurgence: it is an ability to grow in spite of trampling and cutting
4. Resistance: it is an ability to withstand drought, diseases and pests.
5. Seed viability: it is the ability of pasture’s seed to remain alive for a long time
6. Good management: this includes application of fertilizer, water etc
7. Correct stocking density: this is to avoid overgrazing of the available pasture.

ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURE
A. FACTORS AFFECTING ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURE
1. Purpose of pasture establishment whether permanent or short term
2. Adaptability of the pasture to local environment
3. Palatability of the species i.e the pasture must be acceptable to the animals
4. Compatibility of grasses and pasture i.e they should be able to grow together without undue competition
5. Maturity period of the species. The pasture must be early maturing
6. Life span (cycle) of species must be similar
7. Time of planting
8. Environmental factors like climatic, edaphic and biotic factors
B. PROCESS OF PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT
1. Clearing and stumping
2. Tillage practices
3. Planting of forage either by seeds, stem or stolon
4. Paddocking
5. Irrigation
6. Harvesting: this can be either direct or zero grazing

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF PASTURE
Pasture should be regarded as crops in order to ensure good management. The methods adopted depend on the farmer’s knowledge and skill. Some of the management practices include
1. Fertilizer application or manuring
2. Rotational grazing: this is by dividing the pasture into different plots called paddock
3. Reseeding: this is by broadcasting seeds into places where pastures have been reduced.
4. Carrying capacity/Stocking rate: the number of animal a pasture can carry at a time to avoid overgrazing
5. Pest and disease control
6. Weed control
7. Deferred grazing: this is to allow the pasture to regenerate
8. Irrigation
EVALUATION
1. State five factors that can influence the productivity of pasture
2. Mention five practices that ensure good management of forage crops
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Establishment failure in pasture production could occur as a result of (a) poor soil condition (b) poor adaptation (c) cool weather (d) different kind of livestock
2. The problems associated with pasture production are the following except (a) management (b) poor adaptability of the species (c) incompatibility of the species (d) absent of weeds
3. The following are forage grasses except (a) tropical kudzu (b) guinea (c) bahama (d) elephant
4. Each of these is a leguminous pasture except (a) Centrosema pubescens (b) Arachis hypogeal (C) Peuraria phaseoloides (d) Eleusin indica
5. Elephant grass is generally propagated through (a) layering (b)root cutting (c) seeds (d) leaf cutting
THEORY
1. State the steps you would take in the establishment of a pasture
2. Discuss five factors that affect the productivity of a pasture
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agric Science for SSS by M,O Adeniji, et al; pages 172-180
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Read the whole term’s note
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.